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AGENDA 21, CHAPTER 9



PROTECTION OF THE ATMOSPHERE










NOTE:	This is a final, advanced version of a chapter of Agenda 21, as 
adopted by the Plenary in Rio de Janeiro, on June 14, 1992.  
This document will be further edited, translated into the 
official languages, and published by the United Nations for the 
General Assembly this autumn.





........../2




INTRODUCTION


9.1.	Protection of the atmosphere is a broad and multidimensional 
endeavor involving various sectors of economic activity.  The options and 
measures described in this chapter are recommended for consideration and, 
as appropriate, implementation by governments and other bodies in their 
efforts to protect the atmosphere.

9.2.	It is recognized that many of the issues discussed in this chapter 
are also addressed in such international agreements as the 1985 Vienna 
Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer, the 1987 Montreal 
Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer as amended, the 1992 
Framework Convention on Climate Change, and other international, including 
regional, instruments.  In the case of activities covered by such 
agreements, it is understood that the recommendations contained in this 
chapter do not oblige any government to take measures which exceed the 
provisions of these legal instruments.  However, within the framework of 
this chapter, governments are free to carry out additional measures which 
are consistent with those legal instruments.

9.3.	It is also recognized that activities that may be undertaken in 
pursuit of the objectives of this chapter should be coordinated with social 
and economic development in an integrated manner with a view to avoiding 
adverse impacts on the latter, taking into full account the legitimate 
priority needs of developing countries for the achievement of sustained 
economic growth and the eradication of poverty.

9.4.	In this context particular reference is also made to Programme Area 
A of Chapter 2 of Agenda 21.

9.5.	The present chapter includes the following four programme areas:

	a.	Addressing the uncertainties: improving the scientific basis 
for decision-making;

	b.	Promoting sustainable development:

i.	Energy development, efficiency and consumption;
    		ii.	Transportation;
   		iii.	Industrial development;
    		iv.	Terrestrial and marine resource development and land use;

	c.	Preventing stratospheric ozone depletion; 

	d.	Transboundary atmospheric pollution.

PROGRAMME AREAS

	A.	Addressing the uncertainties:  improving the scientific 
basis for decision-making

Basis for action

9.6.	Concern about climate change and climate variability, air pollution 
and ozone depletion has created new demands for scientific, economic and 
social information to reduce the remaining uncertainties in these fields.  
Better understanding and prediction of the various properties of the 
atmosphere and of the affected ecosystems, as well as health impacts and 
their interactions with socio-economic factors, are needed.

Objectives

9.7.	The basic objective of this programme area is to improve the 
understanding of processes that influence and are influenced by the Earth's 
atmosphere on a global, regional and local scale, including, inter alia, 
physical, chemical, geological, biological, oceanic, hydrological, economic 
and social processes; to build capacity and to enhance international 
cooperation; and to improve understanding of the economic and social 
consequences of atmospheric changes and of mitigation and response measures 
addressing such changes.

Activities

9.8.	Governments at the appropriate level, with the cooperation of the 
relevant United Nations bodies and, as appropriate, intergovernmental and 
non-governmental organizations, and the private sector, should:

	a.	Promote research related to the natural processes affecting 
and being affected by the atmosphere, as well as the critical linkages 
between sustainable development and atmospheric changes, including impacts 
on human health, ecosystems, economic sectors, and society. 

	b.	Ensure a more balanced geographical coverage of the Global 
Climate Observing System and its components, including the Global 
Atmosphere Watch, by facilitating, inter alia, the establishment and 
operation of additional systematic observation stations, and by 
contributing to the development, utilization and accessibility of these 
databases;

	c.	Promote cooperation in 

		i.	the development of early detection systems concerning 
changes and fluctuations in the atmosphere, and 
		ii.	the establishment and improvement of capabilities to 
predict such changes and fluctuations and to assess the 
resulting environmental and socio-economic impacts;

	d.	Cooperate in research to develop methodologies and identify 
threshold levels of atmospheric pollutants, as well as atmospheric levels 
of greenhouse gas concentrations, that would cause dangerous anthropogenic 
interference with the climate system and the environment as a whole, and 
the associated rates of change that would not allow ecosystems to adapt 
naturally.

	e.	Promote, and cooperate in the building of scientific 
capacities, the exchange of scientific data and information, and the 
facilitation of the participation and training of experts and technical 
staff, particularly of developing countries, in the fields of research, 
data assembly, collection and assessment, and systematic observation 
related to the atmosphere. 


B.  Promoting sustainable development

1.  Energy development, efficiency and consumption

Basis for action

9.9.	Energy is essential to economic and social development and improved 
quality of life.  Much of the world's energy, however, is currently 
produced and consumed in ways that could not be sustained if technology 
were to remain constant and if overall quantities were to increase 
substantially.  The need to control atmospheric emissions of greenhouse and 
other gases and substances will increasingly need to be based on efficiency 
in energy production, transmission, distribution and consumption, and on 
growing reliance on environmentally sound energy systems, particularly new 
and renewable sources of energy./1/  All energy sources will need to be 
used in ways that respect the atmosphere, human health, and the environment 
as a whole.

9.10.	The existing constraints to increasing the environmentally sound 
energy supplies required for pursuing the path towards sustainable 
development, particularly in developing countries, need to be removed.

Objectives

9.11.	The basic and ultimate objective of this programme area is to 
reduce adverse effects on the atmosphere from the energy sector by 
promoting policies or programmes, as appropriate, to increase the 
contribution of environmentally safe and sound and cost effective energy 
systems, particularly new and renewable ones, through less polluting and 
more efficient energy production, transmission, distribution and use.  This 
objective should reflect the need for equity, adequate energy supplies and 
increasing energy consumption in developing countries, and the need to take 
into consideration the situations of countries that are highly dependent on 
income generated from the production, processing and export, and/or 
consumption of fossil fuels and associated energy-intensive products and/or 
the use of fossil fuels for which countries have serious difficulties in 
switching to alternatives, and of countries highly vulnerable to adverse 
effects of climate change.

Activities


9.12.	Governments at the appropriate level, with the cooperation of the 
relevant United Nations bodies and, as appropriate, intergovernmental and 
non-governmental organizations, and the private sector, should:

	a.	Cooperate in identifying and developing economically viable, 
and environmentally sound energy sources to promote the availability of 
increased energy supplies to support sustainable development efforts, in 
particular in developing countries;

	b.	Promote the development at the national level of appropriate 
methodologies for making integrated energy, environment and economic policy 
decisions for sustainable development, inter alia through environmental 
impact assessments;

	c.	Promote the research, development, transfer and use of 
improved energy-efficient technologies and practices, including endogenous 
technologies in all relevant sectors, giving special attention to the 
rehabilitation and modernization of power systems, with particular 
attention to developing countries;

	d.	Promote the research, development, transfer and use of 
technologies and practices for environmentally sound energy systems, 
including new and renewable energy systems, with particular attention to 
developing countries; 

	e.	Promote the development of institutional, scientific, 
planning and management capacities, particularly in developing countries, 
to develop, produce, and use increasingly efficient and less polluting 
forms of energy;

	f.	Review current energy supply mixes to determine how the 
contribution of environmentally sound energy systems as a whole, 
particularly new and renewable energy systems, could be increased in an 
economically efficient manner, taking into account respective countries' 
unique social, physical, economic and political characteristics, and 
examining and implementing, where appropriate, measures to overcome any 
barriers to their development and use;

	g.	Coordinate energy plans regionally and subregionally, where 
applicable, and study the feasibility of efficient distribution of 
environmentally sound energy from new and renewable energy sources;

	h.	In accordance with national socio-economic development and 
environment priorities, evaluate and, as appropriate, promote cost-
effective policies or programmes, including administrative, social and 
economic measures, in order to improve energy efficiency;

	i.	Build capacity for energy planning and programme management 
in energy efficiency, as well as for the development, introduction, and 
promotion of new and renewable sources of energy;

	j.	Promote appropriate energy efficiency and emission standards 
or recommendations at the national level/2/, aimed at the development and 
use of technologies that minimize adverse impacts on the environment.

	k.	Encourage education and awareness-raising programmes at the 
local, national, subregional and regional levels concerning energy 
efficiency and environmentally sound energy systems;

	l.	Establish or enhance, as appropriate, in cooperation with 
the private sector, labelling programmes for products to provide decision 
makers and consumers with information on opportunities for energy 
efficiency.


2.  Transportation

Basis for action

9.13.	The transport sector has an essential and positive role to play in 
economic and social development, and transportation needs will undoubtedly 
increase.  However, since the transport sector is also a source of 
atmospheric emissions, there is need for a review of existing transport 
systems, and the more effective design and management of traffic and 
transport systems.

Objectives

9.14.	The basic objective of this programme area is to develop and 
promote cost-effective policies or programmes, as appropriate, to limit, 
reduce or control, as appropriate, harmful emissions into the atmosphere 
and other adverse environmental effects of the transport sector, taking 
into account development priorities as well as the specific local and 
national circumstances and safety aspects.

Activities


9.15.	Governments at the appropriate level, with the cooperation of the 
relevant United Nations bodies and, as appropriate, intergovernmental and 
non-governmental organizations, and the private sector, should:

	a.	Develop and promote, as appropriate, cost effective, more 
efficient, less polluting and safer transport systems, particularly 
integrated rural and urban mass transit, as well as environmentally sound 
road networks, taking into account the needs for sustainable social, 
economic and development priorities, particularly in developing countries;

	b.	Facilitate at the international, regional subregional and 
national levels the access to and the transfer of safe, efficient, 
including resource-efficient, and less polluting transport technologies, 
particularly to the developing countries, including the implementation of 
appropriate training programmes;

	c.	Strengthen, as appropriate, their efforts at collecting, 
analysing and exchanging relevant information on the relation between 
environment and transport, with particular emphasis on the systematic 
observation of emissions and the development of a transport database;

	d.	In accordance with national socio-economic development and 
environment priorities, evaluate and, as appropriate, promote cost 
effective policies or programmes, including administrative, social and 
economic measures, in order to encourage use of transportation modes that 
minimize adverse impacts on the atmosphere;

	e.	Develop or enhance, as appropriate, mechanisms to integrate 
transport planning strategies and urban and regional settlement planning 
strategies, with a view to reducing the environmental impacts of transport;

	f.	Study, within the framework of the United Nations and its 
regional economic commissions, the feasibility of convening regional 
conferences on transport and the environment.


3.  Industrial development

Basis for action

9.16.	Industry is essential for the production of goods and services and 
is a major source of employment and income, and industrial development as 
such is essential for economic growth.  At the same time, industry is a 
major resource and materials user and consequently industrial activities 
result in emissions into the atmosphere and the environment as a whole.    
Protection of the atmosphere can be enhanced, inter alia, by increasing 
resource and materials efficiency in industry, installing or improving 
pollution abatement technologies and replacing chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) 
and other ozone-depleting substances with appropriate substitutes, as well 
as by reducing wastes and by-products.
Objectives

9.17.	The basic objective of this programme area is to encourage 
industrial development in ways that minimize adverse impacts on the 
atmosphere by, inter alia, increasing efficiency in the production and 
consumption by industry of all resources and materials, by improving 
pollution-abatement technologies, and by developing new environmentally  
sound technologies.

Activities

9.18.	Governments at the appropriate level, with the cooperation of the 
relevant United Nations bodies and, as appropriate, intergovernmental and 
non-governmental organizations, and the private sector, should:

	a.	In accordance with national socio-economic development and 
environment priorities, evaluate and, as appropriate, promote cost 
effective policies or programmes, including administrative, social and 
economic measures, in order to minimize industrial pollution and adverse 
impacts on the atmosphere;

	b.	Encourage industry to increase and strengthen its capacity 
to develop technologies, products and processes which are safe, less 
polluting, and make more efficient use of all resources and materials, 
including energy;

	c.	Cooperate in development and transfer of such industrial 
technologies and in development of capacities to manage and use such 
technologies, particularly with respect to developing countries;

	d.	Develop, improve and apply environmental impact assessments 
to foster sustainable industrial development;

	e.	Promote efficient use of materials and resources, taking 
into account the life cycles of products, in order to realize the economic 
and environmental benefits of using resources more efficiently and 
producing less wastes;

	f.	Support the promotion of less polluting and more efficient 
technologies and processes in industries, taking into account area-specific 
accessible potentials for energy, particularly safe and renewable sources 
of energy, with a view to limiting industrial pollution and adverse impacts 
on the atmosphere.


4.  Terrestrial and marine resource development and land use

Basis for action

9.19.	Land-use and resource policies will both affect and be affected by 
changes in the atmosphere.  Certain practices related to terrestrial and 
marine resources and land use can decrease greenhouse gas sinks and 
increase atmospheric emissions.  The loss of biological diversity may 
reduce the resilience of ecosystems to climatic variations and air 
pollution damage.  Atmospheric changes can have important impacts on 
forests, biodiversity, and freshwater and marine ecosystems, as well as on 
economic activities, such as agriculture. Policy objectives in different 
sectors may often diverge and will need to be handled in an integrated 
manner.

Objectives

9.20.	The objectives of this programme area are:

	(a)	To promote terrestrial and marine resource utilization and 
appropriate land-use practices that contribute to:

	i.	Reducing atmospheric pollution and/ or limiting 
anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases;

		ii.	The conservation, sustainable management and enhancement, 
where appropriate, of all sinks for greenhouse gases;

   		iii.	The conservation and sustainable use of natural and 
environmental resources;

	(b)	To ensure that actual and potential atmospheric changes and 
their socio-economic and ecological impacts are fully taken into account in 
planning and implementing policies and programmes concerning terrestrial 
and marine resources utilization and land-use practices.

Activities

9.21.	Governments at the appropriate level, with the cooperation of the 
relevant United Nations bodies and, as appropriate, intergovernmental and 
non-governmental organizations, and the private sector, should:

	a.	In accordance with national socio-economic development and 
environment priorities, evaluate and, as appropriate, promote cost 
effective policies or programmes, including administrative, social and 
economic measures, in order to encourage environmentally sound land-use 
practices.

	b.	Implement policies and programmes that will discourage 
inappropriate and polluting land-use practices and promote sustainable 
utilization of terrestrial and marine resources;

	c.	Consider promoting the development and use of terrestrial 
and marine resources and land-use practices that will be more resilient to 
atmospheric changes and fluctuations;

	d.	Promote sustainable management and cooperation in the 
conservation and enhancement, as appropriate, of sinks and reservoirs of 
greenhouse gases, including biomass, forests and oceans, as well as other 
terrestrial, coastal and marine ecosystems.


C.  Preventing stratospheric ozone depletion

Basis for action

9.22.	Analysis of recent scientific data has confirmed the growing 
concern about the continuing depletion of the Earth's stratospheric ozone 
layer by reactive chlorine and bromine from man-made CFCs, halons and 
related substances.  While the 1985 Vienna Convention for the Protection of 
the Ozone Layer and the 1987 Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete 
the Ozone Layer (as amended in London in 1990) were important steps in 
international action, the total chlorine loading of the atmosphere of 
ozone-depleting substances has continued to rise.  This can be changed 
through compliance with the control measures identified within the 
Protocol.

Objectives

9.23.	The objectives of this programme area are:

	a.	To realize the objectives defined in the Vienna Convention 
and the Montreal Protocol and its 1990 amendments, including the 
consideration in those instruments of the special needs and conditions of 
the developing countries and the availability to them of alternatives to 
substances that deplete the ozone layer. Technologies and natural products 
that reduce demand for these substances should be encouraged;

	b.	To develop strategies aimed at mitigating the adverse 
effects of ultraviolet radiation reaching the Earth's surface as a 
consequence of depletion and modification of the stratospheric ozone layer.

Activities

9.24.	Governments at the appropriate level, with the cooperation of the 
relevant United Nations bodies and, as appropriate, intergovernmental and 
non-governmental organizations, and the private sector, should:

	a.	Ratify, accept or approve the Montreal Protocol and its 1990 
amendments; pay their contributions towards the Vienna/Montreal trust funds 
and the interim multilateral ozone fund promptly; and contribute, as 
appropriate, towards ongoing efforts under the Montreal Protocol and its 
implementing mechanisms, including making available substitutes for CFCs 
and other ozone-depleting substances and facilitating the transfer of the 
corresponding technologies to developing countries in order to enable them 
to comply with the obligations of the Protocol;

	b.	Support further expansion of the Global Ozone Observing 
System by facilitating - through bilateral and multilateral funding - the 
establishment and operation of additional systematic observation stations, 
especially in the tropical belt in the southern hemisphere.

	c.	Participate actively in the continuous assessment of 
scientific information and the health and environmental effects, as well as 
of the technological/economic implications of stratospheric ozone 
depletion; and consider further actions that prove warranted and feasible 
on the basis of these assessments; 

	d.	Based on the results of research on the effects of the 
additional ultraviolet radiation reaching the Earth's surface, consider 
taking appropriate remedial measures in the fields of human health, 
agriculture and marine environment;

	e.	Replace CFCs and other ozone-depleting substances, 
consistent with the Montreal Protocol, recognizing that a replacement's 
suitability should be evaluated holistically and not simply based on its 
contribution to solving one atmospheric or environmental problem.


D.  Transboundary atmospheric pollution

Basis for action

9.25.	Transboundary air pollution has adverse health impacts on humans 
and other detrimental environmental impacts, such as tree and forest loss 
and the acidification of water bodies.  The geographical distribution of 
atmospheric pollution monitoring networks is uneven, with the developing 
countries severely underrepresented.  The lack of reliable emissions data 
outside Europe and North America is a major constraint to measuring 
transboundary air pollution.  There is also insufficient information on the 
environmental and health effects of air pollution in other regions.

9.26.	The 1979 Economic Commission for Europe Convention on Long-range 
Transboundary Air Pollution, and its protocols, have established a regional 
regime in Europe and North America, based on a review process and 
cooperative programmes for systematic observation of air pollution, 
assessment and information exchange.  These programmes need to be continued 
and enhanced, and their experience needs to be shared with other regions of 
the world.

Objectives
9.27.	The objectives of this programme area are:

	a.	To develop and apply pollution control and measurement 
technologies for stationary and mobile sources of air pollution and to 
develop alternative environmentally sound technologies;

	b.	To observe and assess systematically the sources and extent 
of transboundary air pollution resulting from natural processes and 
anthropogenic activities;

	c.	To strengthen the capabilities, particularly of developing 
countries, to measure, model and assess the fate and impacts of 
transboundary air pollution, through, inter alia, exchange of information 
and training of experts;

	d.	To develop capabilities to assess and mitigate transboundary 
air pollution resulting from industrial and nuclear accidents, natural 
disasters and the deliberate and/or accidental destruction of natural 
resources;

	e.	To encourage the establishment of new and the implementation 
of existing regional agreements for limiting transboundary air pollution;

	f.	To develop strategies aiming at the reduction of emissions 
causing transboundary air pollution and their effects.

Activities

9.28.	Governments at the appropriate level, with the cooperation of the 
relevant United Nations bodies and, as appropriate, intergovernmental and 
non-governmental organizations, the private sector and financial 
institutions, should:

	a.	Establish and/or strengthen regional agreements for 
transboundary air pollution control and cooperate, particularly with 
developing countries, in the areas of systematic observations and 
assessment, modelling and the development and exchange of emission control 
technologies of mobile and stationary sources of air pollution.  In this 
context, greater emphasis should be put on addressing the extent, causes, 
health and socio-economic impacts of ultraviolet radiation, acidification 
of the environment and photo-oxidant damage to forests and other 
vegetation;

	b.	Establish or strengthen early warning systems and response 
mechanisms for transboundary air pollution resulting from industrial 
accidents and natural disasters and the deliberate and/or accidental 
destruction of natural resources;

	c.	Facilitate training opportunities and exchange of data, 
information and national and/or regional experiences;

	d.	Cooperate on regional, multilateral and bilateral bases to 
assess transboundary air pollution, and elaborate and implement programmes 
identifying specific actions to reduce atmospheric emissions and to address 
their environmental, economic, social and other effects.

Means of implementation

International and Regional Co-operation

9.29.	Existing legal instruments have created institutional structures 
which relate to the purposes of these instruments, and relevant work should 
primarily continue in those contexts.  Governments should continue to 
cooperate and enhance their cooperation at the regional and global levels, 
including within the United Nations system.  In this context reference is 
made to the recommendations of chapter 38 of Agenda 21.

Capacity-building

9.30.	Countries, in cooperation with the relevant United Nations bodies, 
international donors and non-governmental organizations, should mobilize 
technical and financial resources and facilitate technical cooperation with 
developing countries to reinforce their technical, managerial, planning and 
administrative capacities to promote sustainable development and the 
protection of the atmosphere, in all relevant sectors.

Human resource development

9.31.	Education and awareness-raising programmes need to be introduced 
and strengthened at the local, national and international levels concerning 
the promotion of sustainable development and the protection of the 
atmosphere, in all relevant sectors.

Financial and cost evaluation

9.32.	The UNCED Secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost 
(1993-2000) of implementing the activities under Programme Area A to be 
about $640 million from the international community on grant or 
concessional terms.  These are indicative and order of magnitude estimates 
only and have not been reviewed by governments.  Actual costs and financial 
terms, including any that are non-concessional, will depend upon, inter 
alia, the specific strategies and programmes governments decide upon for 
implementation.

9.33.	The UNCED Secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost 
(1993-2000) of implementing the activities of the four-part programme under 
Programme Area B to be about $20 billion from the international community 
on grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and order of magnitude 
estimates only and have not been reviewed by governments.  Actual costs and 
financial terms, including any that are non-concessional, will depend upon, 
inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes governments decide upon 
for implementation.

9.34.	The UNCED Secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost 
(1993-2000) of implementing the activities under Programme Area C to be in 
the range of $160-590 million on grant or concessional terms.  These are 
indicative and order of magnitude estimates only and have not been reviewed 
by governments. Actual costs and financial terms, including any that are 
non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and 
programmes governments decide upon for implementation.

9.35.	The UNCED Secretariat has included costing for technical assistance 
and pilot programmes under 9.32 and 9.33 above.


Notes

	1/	New and renewable energy sources are solar thermal, solar 
photovoltaic, wind, hydro, biomass, geothermal, ocean, animal and human 
power, as referred to in the reports of the Committee on the Development 
and Utilization of New and Renewable Sources of Energy, prepared 
specifically for the Conference (see A/CONF.151/PC/119 and 
A/AC.218/1992/5).  

	2/	This includes standards or recommendations promoted by 
regional economic integration organizations.

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