United Nations Conference on Environment & Development
 
Confrence des Nations Unies sur l'Environnement et le Dveloppement

160 Route de Florissant                  Tel: (41-22)789-1676
P.O. Box: 80                             Fax: (41-22)789-3536
CH-1231 Conches                          InterNet/EcoNet: unced@igc.org,
Switzerland                              D41:tcn4091, GeoNet:mcr1:unced




AGENDA 21, CHAPTER 18



PROTECTION OF THE QUALITY AND SUPPLY OF
FRESHWATER RESOURCES:  APPLICATION OF
INTEGRATED APPROACHES TO THE
DEVELOPMENT, MANAGEMENT AND USE OF
WATER RESOURCES








NOTE:	This is a final, advanced version of a chapter of Agenda 21, as 
adopted by the Plenary in Rio de Janeiro, on June 14, 1992.  
This document will be further edited, translated into the 
official languages, and published by the United Nations for the 
General Assembly this autumn.



........../2



INTRODUCTION

18.1.	Freshwater resources are an essential component of the earth's 
hydrosphere and an indispensable part of all terrestrial ecosystems.  The 
freshwater environment is characterized by the hydrological cycle, 
including floods and droughts, which in some regions have become more 
extreme and dramatic in their consequences.  Global climate change and 
atmospheric pollution could also have an impact on freshwater resources and 
their availability and, through sea-level rise, threaten low-lying coastal 
areas and small island ecosystems.

18.2.	Water is needed in all aspects of life.  The general objective is to 
make certain that adequate supplies of water of good quality are maintained 
for the entire population of this planet, while preserving the 
hydrological, biological and chemical functions of ecosystems, adapting 
human activities within the capacity limits of nature and combating vectors 
of water-related diseases.  Innovative technologies, including the 
improvement of indigenous technologies, are needed to fully utilize limited 
water resources and to safeguard those resources against pollution.

18.3.	The widespread scarcity, gradual destruction and aggravated pollution 
of freshwater resources in many world regions, along with the progressive 
encroachment of incompatible activities, demand integrated water resources 
planning and management. Such integration must cover all types of 
interrelated freshwater bodies, including both surface water and 
groundwater, and duly consider water quantity and quality aspects. The 
multisectoral nature of water resources development in the context of 
socio-economic development must be recognized, as well as the 
multi-interest utilization of water resources for water supply and 
sanitation, agriculture, industry, urban development, hydropower 
generation, inland fisheries, transportation, recreation, low and flat 
lands management and other activities.  Rational water utilization schemes 
for the development of surface and underground water-supply sources and 
other potential sources have to be supported by concurrent water 
conservation and wastage minimization measures. Priority, however, must be 
accorded to flood prevention and control measures, as well as sedimentation 
control, where required.

18.4.	Transboundary water resources and their use are of great importance 
to riparian States.  In this connection, cooperation among those States may 
be desirable in conformity with existing agreements and/or other relevant 
arrangements, taking into account the interests of all riparian States 
concerned.

18.5.	The following programme areas are proposed for the freshwater sector:

	(a)	Integrated water resources development and management;

(b)	Water resources assessment;

	(c)	Protection of water resources, water quality and aquatic 
ecosystems;

	(d)	Drinking-water supply and sanitation;

	(e)	Water and sustainable urban development;

	(f)	Water for sustainable food production and rural development;

	(g)	Impacts of climate change on water resources.


PROGRAMME AREAS

A.  Integrated water resources development and management

Basis for action

18.6.	The extent to which water resources development contributes to 
economic productivity and social well-being is not usually appreciated, 
although all social and economic activities rely heavily on the supply and 
quality of freshwater.  As populations and economic activities grow, many 
countries are rapidly reaching conditions of water scarcity or facing 
limits to economic development.  Water demands are increasing rapidly, with 
70-80 per cent required for irrigation, less than 20 per cent for industry 
and a mere 6 per cent for domestic consumption.  The holistic management of 
freshwater as a finite and vulnerable resource, and the integration of 
sectoral water plans and programmes within the framework of national 
economic and social policy, are of paramount importance for action in the 
1990s and beyond.  The fragmentation of responsibilities for water 
resources development among sectoral agencies is proving, however, to be an 
even greater impediment to promoting integrated water management than had 
been anticipated. Effective implementation and coordination mechanisms are 
required.

Objectives

18.7.	The overall objective is to satisfy the freshwater needs of all 
countries for their sustainable development.

18.8.	Integrated water resources management is based on the perception of 
water as an integral part of the ecosystem, a natural resource and a social 
and economic good, whose quantity and quality determine the nature of its 
utilization.  To this end, water resources have to be protected, taking 
into account the functioning of aquatic ecosystems and the perenniality of 
the resource, in order to satisfy and reconcile needs for water in human 
activities.  In developing and using water resources, priority has to be 
given to the satisfaction of basic needs and the safeguarding of 
ecosystems.  Beyond these requirements, however, water users should be 
charged appropriately.

18.9.	Integrated water resources management, including the integration of 
land- and water-related aspects, should be carried out at the level of the 
catchment basin or sub-basin.  Four principal objectives should be pursued, 
as follows:

	(a)	To promote a dynamic, interactive, iterative and multisectoral 
approach to water resources management, including the identification and 
protection of potential sources of freshwater supply, that integrates 
technological, socio-economic, environmental and human health 
considerations;

	(b)	To plan for the sustainable and rational utilization, 
protection, conservation and management of water resources based on 
community needs and priorities within the framework of national economic 
development policy;

	(c)	To design, implement and evaluate projects and programmes that 
are both economically efficient and socially appropriate within clearly 
defined strategies, based on an approach of full public participation, 
including that of women, youth, indigenous people, local communities, in 
water management policy-making and decision-making;

	(d)	To identify and strengthen or develop, as required, in 
particular in developing countries, the appropriate institutional, legal 
and financial mechanisms to ensure that water policy and its implementation 
are a catalyst for sustainable social progress and economic growth.

18.10.	In the case of transboundary water resources, there is a need for 
riparian States to formulate water resources strategies, prepare water 
resources action programmes and consider, where appropriate, the 
harmonization of those strategies and action programmes.

18.11.	All States, according to their capacity and available resources, 
and through bilateral or multilateral cooperation, including the United 
Nations and other relevant organizations as appropriate, could set the 
following targets:

	(a)	By the year 2000:

	(i)	To have designed and initiated costed and targeted national 
action programmes, and have put in place appropriate 
institutional structures and legal instruments;

    	(ii)	To have established efficient water-use programmes to attain 
sustainable resource utilization patterns;

	(b)	By the year 2025:

	(i)	To have achieved subsectoral targets of all freshwater 
programme areas.

It is understood that the fulfilment of the targets quantified in (i) and 
(ii) above will depend upon new and additional financial resources that 
will be made available to developing countries in accordance with the 
relevant provisions of General Assembly resolution 44/228.

Activities

18.12.	All States, according to their capacity and available resources, 
and through bilateral or multilateral cooperation, including the 
United Nations and other relevant organizations as appropriate, could 
implement the following activities to improve integrated water resources 
management:

	(a)	Formulation of costed and targeted national action plans and 
investment programmes;

	(b)	Integration of measures for the protection and conservation of 
potential sources of freshwater supply, including the inventorying of water 
resources, with land-use planning, forest resource utilization, protection 
of mountain slopes and riverbanks and other relevant development and 
conservation activities;

	(c)	Development of interactive databases, forecasting models, 
economic planning models and methods for water management and planning, 
including environmental impact assessment methods;

	(d)	Optimization of water resources allocation under physical and 
socio-economic constraints;

	(e)	Implementation of allocation decisions through demand 
management, pricing mechanisms and regulatory measures;

	(f)	Flood and drought management, including risk analysis and 
environmental and social impact assessment;

	(g)	Promotion of schemes for rational water use through public 
awareness-raising, educational programmes and levying of water tariffs and 
other economic instruments;

	(h)	Mobilization of water resources, particularly in arid and 
semi-arid areas;

	(i)	Promotion of international scientific research cooperation on 
freshwater resources;

	(j)	Development of new and alternative sources of water-supply such 
as sea-water desalination, artificial groundwater recharge, use of 
marginal-quality water, waste-water reuse and water recycling;
	(k)	Integration of water (including surface and underground water 
resources) quantity and quality management;

	(l)	Promotion of water conservation through improved water-use 
efficiency and wastage minimization schemes for all users, including the 
development of water-saving devices;

	(m)	Support to water-users groups to optimize local water resources 
management;

	(n)	Development of public participatory techniques and their 
implementation in decision-making, particularly the enhancement of the role 
of women in water resources planning and management;

	(o)	Development and strengthening, as appropriate, of cooperation, 
including mechanisms where appropriate, at all levels concerned, namely:

	(i)	At the lowest appropriate level, delegation of water resources 
management, generally, to such a level, in accordance with 
national legislation, including decentralization of government 
services to local authorities, private enterprises and 
communities;

    	(ii)	At the national level, integrated water resources planning and 
management in the framework of the national planning process 
and, where appropriate, establishment of independent regulation 
and monitoring of freshwater, based on national legislation and 
economic measures;

   	(iii)	At the regional level, consideration, where appropriate, 
of the harmonization of national strategies and action 
programmes;

    	(iv)	At the global level, improved delineation of responsibilities, 
division of labour and coordination of international 
organizations and programmes, including facilitating 
discussions and sharing of experiences in areas related to 
water resources management;

	(p)	Dissemination of information, including operational guidelines, 
and promotion of education for water users, including the consideration by 
the United Nations of a World Water Day.

Means of implementation

(a)	Financing and cost evaluation

18.13.	The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual 
cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be 
about $115 million from the international community on grant or 
concessional terms.  These are indicative and order of magnitude estimates 
only and have not been reviewed by Governments.  Actual costs and financial 
terms, including any that are non-concessional, will depend upon, inter 
alia, the specific strategies and programmes Governments decide upon for 
implementation.

(b)	Scientific and technological means

18.14.	The development of interactive databases, forecasting methods and 
economic planning models appropriate to the task of managing water 
resources in an efficient and sustainable manner will require the 
application of new techniques such as geographical information systems and 
expert systems to gather, assimilate, analyse and display multisectoral 
information and to optimize decision-making.  In addition, the development 
of new and alternative sources of water-supply and low-cost water 
technologies will require innovative applied research.  This will involve 
the transfer, adaptation and diffusion of new techniques and technology 
among developing countries, as well as the development of endogenous 
capacity, for the purpose of being able to deal with the added dimension of 
integrating engineering, economic, environmental and social aspects of 
water resources management and predicting the effects in terms of human 
impact.

18.15.	Pursuant to the recognition of water as a social and economic good, 
the various available options for charging water users (including domestic, 
urban, industrial and agricultural water-user groups) have to be further 
evaluated and field-tested.  Further development is required for economic 
instruments that take into account opportunity costs and environmental 
externalities.  Field studies on the willingness to pay should be conducted 
in rural and urban situations.

18.16.	Water resources development and management should be planned in an 
integrated manner, taking into account long-term planning needs as well as 
those with narrower horizons, that is to say, they should incorporate 
environmental, economic and social considerations based on the principle of 
sustainability; include the requirements of all users as well as those 
relating to the prevention and mitigation of water-related hazards; and 
constitute an integral part of the socio-economic development planning 
process.  A prerequisite for the sustainable management of water as a 
scarce vulnerable resource is the obligation to acknowledge in all planning 
and development its full costs. Planning considerations should reflect 
benefits investment, environmental protection and operation costs, as well 
as the opportunity costs reflecting the most valuable alternative use of 
water.  Actual charging need not necessarily burden all beneficiaries with 
the consequences of those considerations.  Charging mechanisms should, 
however, reflect as far as possible both the true cost of water when used 
as an economic good and the ability of the communities to pay.

18.17.	The role of water as a social, economic and life-sustaining good 
should be reflected in demand management mechanisms and implemented through 
water conservation and reuse, resource assessment and financial 
instruments.

18.18.	The setting afresh of priorities for private and public investment 
strategies should take into account (a) maximum utilization of existing 
projects, through maintenance, rehabilitation and optimal operation; 
(b) new or alternative clean technologies; and (c) environmentally and 
socially benign hydropower.

(c)	Human resources development

18.19.	The delegation of water resources management to the lowest 
appropriate level necessitates educating and training water management 
staff at all levels and ensuring that women participate equally in the 
education and training programmes.  Particular emphasis has to be placed on 
the introduction of public participatory techniques, including enhancement 
of the role of women, youth, indigenous people and local communities. 
Skills related to various water management functions have to be developed 
by municipal government and water authorities, as well as in the private 
sector, local/national non-governmental organizations, cooperatives, 
corporations and other water-user groups. Education of the public regarding 
the importance of water and its proper management is also needed.

18.20.	To implement these principles, communities need to have adequate 
capacities. Those who establish the framework for water development and 
management at any level, whether international, national or local, need to 
ensure that the means exist to build those capacities.  The means will vary 
from case to case.  They usually include:

	(a)	Awareness-creation programmes, including mobilizing commitment 
and support at all levels and initiating global and local action to promote 
such programmes;

	(b)	Training of water managers at all levels so that they have an 
appropriate understanding of all the elements necessary for their 
decision-making;

	(c)	Strengthening of training capacities in developing countries;

	(d)	Appropriate training of the necessary professionals, including 
extension workers;

	(e)	Improvement of career structures;

	(f)	Sharing of appropriate knowledge and technology, both for the 
collection of data and for the implementation of planned development 
including non-polluting technologies and the knowledge needed to extract 
the best performance from the existing investment system.

(d)	Capacity-building

18.21.	Institutional capacity for implementing integrated water management 
should be reviewed and developed when there is a clear demand.  Existing 
administrative structures will often be quite capable of achieving local 
water resources management, but the need may arise for new institutions 
based upon the perspective, for example, of river catchment areas, district 
development councils and local community committees. Although water is 
managed at various levels in the socio-political system, demand-driven 
management requires the development of water-related institutions at 
appropriate levels, taking into account the need for integration with 
land-use management.

18.22.	In creating the enabling environment for lowest-appropriate-level 
management, the role of Government includes mobilization of financial and 
human resources, legislation, standard-setting and other regulatory 
functions, monitoring and assessment of the use of water and land 
resources, and creating of opportunities for public participation. 
International agencies and donors have an important role to play in 
providing support to developing countries in creating the required enabling 
environment for integrated water resources management.  This should 
include, as appropriate, donor support to local levels in developing 
countries, including community-based institutions, non-governmental 
organizations and women's groups.


B.  Water resources assessment

Basis for action

18.23.	Water resources assessment, including the identification of 
potential sources of freshwater supply, comprises the continuing 
determination of sources, extent, dependability and quality of water 
resources and of the human activities that affect those resources.  Such 
assessment constitutes the practical basis for their sustainable management 
and a prerequisite for evaluation of the possibilities for their 
development. There is, however, growing concern that at a time when more 
precise and reliable information is needed about water resources, 
hydrologic services and related bodies are less able than before to provide 
this information, especially information on groundwater and water quality.  
Major impediments are the lack of financial resources for water resources 
assessment, the fragmented nature of hydrologic services and the 
insufficient numbers of qualified staff.  At the same time, the advancing 
technology for data capture and management is increasingly difficult to 
access for developing countries. Establishment of national databases is, 
however, vital to water resources assessment and to mitigation of the 
effects of floods, droughts, desertification and pollution.

Objectives

18.24.	Based upon the Mar del Plata Action Plan, this programme area has 
been extended into the 1990s and beyond with the overall objective of 
ensuring the assessment and forecasting of the quantity and quality of 
water resources, in order to estimate the total quantity of water resources 
available and their future supply potential, to determine their current 
quality status, to predict possible conflicts between supply and demand and 
to provide a scientific database for rational water resources utilization.
18.25.	Five specific objectives have been set accordingly, as follows:

	(a)	To make available to all countries water resources assessment 
technology that is appropriate to their needs, irrespective of their level 
of development, including methods for the impact assessment of climate 
change on freshwaters;

	(b)	To have all countries, according to their financial means, 
allocate to water resources assessment financial resources in line with the 
economic and social needs for water resources data;

	(c)	To ensure that the assessment information is fully utilized in 
the development of water management policies;

	(d)	To have all countries establish the institutional arrangements 
needed to ensure the efficient collection, processing, storage, retrieval 
and dissemination to users of information about the quality and quantity of 
available water resources at the level of catchments and groundwater 
aquifers in an integrated manner;

	(e)	To have sufficient numbers of appropriately qualified and 
capable staff recruited and retained by water resources assessment agencies 
and provided with the training and retraining they will need to carry out 
their responsibilities successfully.

18.26.	All States, according to their capacity and available resources, 
and through bilateral or multilateral cooperation, including cooperation 
with the United Nations and other relevant organizations, as appropriate, 
could set the following targets:

	(a)	By the year 2000, to have studied in detail the feasibility of 
installing water resources assessment services;

	(b)	As a long-term target, to have fully operational services 
available based upon high-density hydrometric networks.

Activities

18.27.	All States, according to their capacity and available resources, 
and through bilateral or multilateral cooperation, including the United 
Nations and other relevant organizations as appropriate, could undertake 
the following activities:

	(a)	Institutional framework:

	(i)	Establish appropriate policy frameworks and national 
priorities;

    	(ii)	Establish and strengthen the institutional capabilities of 
countries, including legislative and regulatory arrangements, 
that are required to ensure the adequate assessment of their 
water resources and the provision of flood and drought 
forecasting services;

   	(iii)	Establish and maintain effective cooperation at the 
national level between the various agencies responsible for the 
collection, storage and analysis of hydrologic data;

    	(iv)	Cooperate in the assessment of transboundary water resources, 
subject to the prior agreement of each riparian State 
concerned;

	(b)	Data systems:

(i)	Review existing data-collection networks and assess their 
adequacy, including those that provide real-time data for flood 
and drought forecasting;

    	(ii)	Improve networks to meet accepted guidelines for the provision 
of data on water quantity and quality for surface and 
groundwater, as well as relevant land-use data;

   	(iii)	Apply standards and other means to ensure data 
compatibility;

    	(iv)	Upgrade facilities and procedures used to store, process and 
analyse hydrologic data and make such data and the forecasts 
derived from them available to potential users;

(v)	Establish databases on the availability of all types of 
hydrologic data at the national level;

    	(vi)	Implement "data rescue" operations, for example, establishment 
of national archives of water resources;

   	(vii)	Implement appropriate well-tried techniques for the 
processing of hydrologic data;

  	(viii)	Derive area-related estimates from point hydrologic data;

    	(ix)	Assimilate remotely sensed data and the use, where appropriate, 
of geographical information systems;

	(c)	Data dissemination:

	(i)	Identify the need for water resources data for various planning 
purposes;

    	(ii)	Analyse and present data and information on water resources in 
the forms required for planning and management of countries' 
socio-economic development and for use in environmental 
protection strategies and in the design and operation of 
specific water-related projects;

   	(iii)	Provide forecasts and warnings of flood and drought to 
the general public and civil defence;

	(d)	Research and development:

	(i)	Establish or strengthen research and development programmes at 
the national, subregional, regional and international levels in 
support of water resources assessment activities;

    	(ii)	Monitor research and development activities to ensure that they 
make full use of local expertise and other local resources and 
that they are appropriate for the needs of the country or 
countries concerned.

Means of implementation

(a)	Financing and cost evaluation

18.28.	The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual 
cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be 
about $355 million, including about $145 million from the international 
community on grant or concessional terms.  These are indicative and order 
of magnitude estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments.  
Actual costs and financial terms, including any that are non-concessional 
will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes 
Governments decide upon for implementation.

(b)	Scientific and technological means

18.29.	Important research needs include (a) development of global 
hydrologic models in support of analysis of climate change impact and of 
macroscale water resources assessment; (b) closing of the gap between 
terrestrial hydrology and ecology at different scales, including the 
critical water-related processes behind loss of vegetation and land 
degradation and its restoration; and (c) study of the key processes in 
water-quality genesis, closing the gap between hydrologic flows and 
biogeochemical processes.  The research models should build upon hydrologic 
balance studies and also include the consumptive use of water.  This 
approach should also, when appropriate, be applied at the catchment level.

18.30.	Water resources assessment necessitates the strengthening of 
existing systems for technology transfer, adaptation and diffusion, and the 
development of new technology for use under field conditions, as well as 
the development of endogenous capacity.  Prior to inaugurating the above 
activities, it is necessary to prepare catalogues of the water resources 
information held by government services, the private sector, educational 
institutes, consultants, local water-use organizations and others.

(c)	Human resource development

18.31.	Water resources assessment requires the establishment and 
maintenance of a body of well-trained and motivated staff sufficient in 
number to undertake the above activities. Education and training programmes 
designed to ensure an adequate supply of these trained personnel should be 
established or strengthened at the local, national, subregional or regional 
level.  In addition, the provision of attractive terms of employment and 
career paths for professional and technical staff should be encouraged.  
Human resource needs should be monitored periodically, including all levels 
of employment.  Plans have to be established to meet those needs through 
education and training opportunities and international programmes of 
courses and conferences.

18.32.	Because well-trained people are particularly important to water 
resources assessment and hydrologic forecasting, personnel matters should 
receive special attention in this area.  The aim should be to attract and 
retain personnel to work on water resources assessment who are sufficient 
in number and adequate in their level of education to ensure the effective 
implementation of the activities that are planned. Education may be called 
for at both the national and the international level, with adequate terms 
of employment being a national responsibility.

18.33.	Recommended actions include:

	(a)	Identifying education and training needs geared to the specific 
requirements of countries;

	(b)	Establishing and strengthening education and training 
programmes on water-related topics, within an environmental and 
developmental context, for all categories of staff involved in water 
resources assessment activities, using advanced educational technology, 
where appropriate, and involving both men and women;

	(c)	Developing sound recruitment, personnel and pay policies for 
staff of national and local water agencies.

(d)	Capacity-building

18.34.	The conduct of water resources assessment on the basis of 
operational national hydrometric networks requires an enabling environment 
at all levels.  The following national support action is necessary for 
enhanced national capacities:

	(a)	Review of the legislative and regulatory basis of water 
resources assessment;

	(b)	Facilitation of close collaboration among water sector 
agencies, particularly between information producers and users;

	(c)	Implementation of water management policies based upon 
realistic appraisals of water resources conditions and trends;

	(d)	Strengthening of the managerial capabilities of water-user 
groups, including women, youth, indigenous people and local communities, to 
improve water-use efficiency at the local level.


	C.  Protection of water resources, water quality and aquatic 
ecosystems

Basis for action

18.35.	Freshwater is a unitary resource.  Long-term development of global 
freshwater requires holistic management of resources and a recognition of 
the interconnectedness of the elements related to freshwater and freshwater 
quality.  There are few regions of the world that are still exempt from 
problems of loss of potential sources of freshwater supply, degraded water 
quality and pollution of surface and groundwater sources.  Major problems 
affecting the water quality of rivers and lakes arise, in variable order of 
importance according to different situations, from inadequately treated 
domestic sewage, inadequate controls on the discharges of industrial waste 
waters, loss and destruction of catchment areas, ill-considered siting of 
industrial plants, deforestation, uncontrolled shifting cultivation and 
poor agricultural practices.  This gives rise to the leaching of nutrients 
and pesticides.  Aquatic ecosystems are disturbed and living freshwater 
resources are threatened.  Under certain circumstances, aquatic ecosystems 
are also affected by agricultural water resource development projects such 
as dams, river diversions, water installations and irrigation schemes.  
Erosion, sedimentation, deforestation and desertification have led to 
increased land degradation, and the creation of reservoirs has, in some 
cases, resulted in adverse effects on ecosystems.  Many of these problems 
have arisen from a development model that is environmentally destructive 
and from a lack of public awareness and education about surface and 
groundwater resource protection.  Ecological and human health effects are 
the measurable consequences, although the means to monitor them are 
inadequate or non-existent in many countries.  There is a widespread lack 
of perception of the linkages between the development, management, use and 
treatment of water resources and aquatic ecosystems. A preventive approach, 
where appropriate, is crucial to the avoiding of costly subsequent measures 
to rehabilitate, treat and develop new water supplies.

Objectives

18.36.	The complex interconnectedness of freshwater systems demands that 
freshwater management be holistic (taking a catchment management approach) 
and based on a balanced consideration of the needs of people and the 
environment.  The Mar del Plata Action Plan has already recognized the 
intrinsic linkage between water resource development projects and their 
significant physical, chemical, biological, health and socio-economic 
repercussions.  The overall environmental health objective was set as 
follows:  "to evaluate the consequences which the various users of water 
have on the environment, to support measures aimed at controlling 
water-related diseases, and to protect ecosystems". 1/

18.37.	The extent and severity of contamination of unsaturated zones and 
aquifers have long been underestimated owing to the relative 
inaccessibility of aquifers and the lack of reliable information on aquifer 
systems.  The protection of groundwater is therefore an essential element 
of water resource management.

18.38.	Three objectives will have to be pursued concurrently to integrate 
water-quality elements into water resource management:

	(a)	Maintenance of ecosystem integrity, according to a management 
principle of preserving aquatic ecosystems, including living resources, and 
of effectively protecting them from any form of degradation on a drainage 
basin basis;

	(b)	Public health protection, a task requiring not only the 
provision of safe drinking-water but also the control of disease vectors in 
the aquatic environment;

	(c)	Human resources development, a key to capacity-building and a 
prerequisite for implementing water-quality management.

18.39.	All States, according to their capacity and available resources, 
through bilateral or multilateral cooperation, including the United Nations 
and other relevant organizations as appropriate, could set the following 
targets:

	(a)	To identify the surface and groundwater resources that could be 
developed for use on a sustainable basis and other major developable 
water-dependent resources and, simultaneously, to initiate programmes for 
the protection, conservation and rational use of these resources on a 
sustainable basis;

	(b)	To identify all potential sources of water-supply and prepared 
outlines for their protection, conservation and rational use;

	(c)	To initiate effective water pollution prevention and control 
programmes, based on an appropriate mixture of pollution 
reduction-at-source strategies, environmental impact assessments and 
enforceable standards for major point-source discharges and high-risk 
non-point sources, commensurate with their socio-economic development;

	(d)	To participate, as far as appropriate, in international 
water-quality monitoring and management programmes such as the Global Water 
Quality Monitoring Programme (GEMS/WATER), the UNEP Environmentally Sound 
Management of Inland Waters (EMINWA), the FAO regional inland fishery 
bodies, and the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance 
Especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention);

	(e)	To reduce the prevalence of water-associated diseases, starting 
with the eradication of dracunculiasis (guinea worm disease) and 
onchocerciasis (river blindness) by the year 2000;

	(f)	To establish, according to capacities and needs, biological, 
health, physical and chemical quality criteria for all water bodies 
(surface and groundwater), with a view to an ongoing improvement of water 
quality;

	(g)	To adopt an integrated approach to environmentally sustainable 
management of water resources, including the protection of aquatic 
ecosystems and freshwater living resources;

	(h)	To put in place strategies for the environmentally sound 
management of freshwaters and related coastal ecosystems, including 
consideration of fisheries, aquaculture, animal grazing, agricultural 
activities and biodiversity.

Activities

18.40.	All States, according to their capacity and available resources, 
and through bilateral or multilateral cooperation, including United Nations 
and other relevant organizations as appropriate, could implement the 
following activities:

	(a)	Water resources protection and conservation:

	(i)	Establishment and strengthening of technical and institutional 
capacities to identify and protect potential sources of 
water-supply within all sectors of society;

    	(ii)	Identification of potential sources of water-supply and 
preparation of national profiles;

   	(iii)	Preparation of national plans for water resources 
protection and conservation;

    	(iv)	Rehabilitation of important, but degraded, catchment areas, 
particularly on small islands;

	(v)	Strengthening of administrative and legislative measures to 
prevent encroachment on existing and potentially usable 
catchment areas;

(b)	Water pollution prevention and control:

	(i)	Application of the "polluter pays" principle, where 
appropriate, to all kinds of sources, including on-site and 
off-site sanitation;

    	(ii)	Promotion of the construction of treatment facilities for 
domestic sewage and industrial effluents and the development of 
appropriate technologies, taking into account sound traditional 
and indigenous practices;

   	(iii)	Establishment of standards for the discharge of effluents 
and for the receiving waters;

    	(iv)	Introduction of the precautionary approach in water-quality 
management, where appropriate, with a focus on pollution 
minimization and prevention through use of new technologies, 
product and process change, pollution reduction at source and 
effluent reuse, recycling and recovery, treatment and 
environmentally safe disposal;

	(v)	Mandatory environmental impact assessment of all major water 
resource development projects potentially impairing water 
quality and aquatic ecosystems, combined with the delineation 
of appropriate remedial measures and a strengthened control of 
new industrial installations, solid waste landfills and 
infrastructure development projects;

    	(vi)	Use of risk assessment and risk management in reaching 
decisions in this area and ensuring compliance with those 
decisions;

   	(vii)	Identification and application of best environmental 
practices at reasonable cost to avoid diffuse pollution, 
namely, through a limited, rational and planned use of 
nitrogenous fertilizers and other agrochemicals (pesticides, 
herbicides) in agricultural practices;

  	(viii)	Encouragement and promotion of the use of adequately 
treated and purified waste waters in agriculture, aquaculture, 
industry and other sectors;

	(c)	Development and application of clean technology:

	(i)	Control of industrial waste discharges, including low-waste 
production technologies and water recirculation, in an 
integrated manner and through application of precautionary 
measures derived from a broad-based life-cycle analysis;

    	(ii)	Treatment of municipal waste water for safe reuse in 
agriculture and aquaculture;

   	(iii)	Development of biotechnology, inter alia, for waste 
treatment, production of biofertilizers and other activities;
    	(iv)	Development of appropriate methods for water pollution control, 
taking into account sound traditional and indigenous practices;

(d)	Groundwater protection:

	(i)	Development of agricultural practices that do not degrade 
groundwaters;

    	(ii)	Application of the necessary measures to mitigate saline 
intrusion into aquifers of small islands and coastal plains as 
a consequence of sealevel rise or overexploitation of coastal 
aquifers;

   	(iii)	Prevention of aquifer pollution through the regulation of 
toxic substances that permeate the ground and the establishment 
of protection zones in groundwater recharge and abstraction 
areas;

    	(iv)	Design and management of landfills based upon sound 
hydrogeologic information and impact assessment, using the best 
practicable and best available technology;

	(v)	Promotion of measures to improve the safety and integrity of 
wells and well-head areas to reduce intrusion of biological 
pathogens and hazardous chemicals into aquifers at well sites;

    	(vi)	Water-quality monitoring, as needed, of surface and 
groundwaters potentially affected by sites storing toxic and 
hazardous materials;

	(e)	Protection of aquatic ecosystems:

	(i)	Rehabilitation of polluted and degraded water bodies to restore 
aquatic habitats and ecosystems;

    	(ii)	Rehabilitation programmes for agricultural lands and for other 
users, taking into account equivalent action for the protection 
and use of groundwater resources important for agricultural 
productivity and for the biodiversity of the tropics;

   	(iii)	Conservation and protection of wetlands (owing to their 
ecological and habitat importance for many species), taking 
into account social and economic factors;

    	(iv)	Control of noxious aquatic species that may destroy some other 
water species;

	(f)	Protection of freshwater living resources:

	(i)	Control and monitoring of water quality to allow for the 
sustainable development of inland fisheries;

    	(ii)	Protection of ecosystems from pollution and degradation for the 
development of freshwater aquaculture projects;

	(g)	Monitoring and surveillance of water resources and waters 
receiving wastes:

	(i)	Establishment of networks for the monitoring and continuous 
surveillance of waters receiving wastes and of point and 
diffuse sources of pollution;

    	(ii)	Promotion and extension of the application of environmental 
impact assessments of geographical information systems;

   	(iii)	Surveillance of pollution sources to improve compliance 
with standards and regulations and to regulate the issue of 
discharge permits;

    	(iv)	Monitoring of the utilization of chemicals in agriculture that 
may have an adverse environmental effect;

	(v)	Rational land use to prevent land degradation, erosion and 
siltation of lakes and other water bodies;

	(h)	Development of national and international legal instruments 
that may be required to protect the quality of water resources, as 
appropriate, particularly for:

	(i)	Monitoring and control of pollution and its effects in national 
and transboundary waters;

    	(ii)	Control of long-range atmospheric transport of pollutants;

   	(iii)	Control of accidental and/or deliberate spills in 
national and/or transboundary water bodies;

    	(iv)	Environmental impact assessment.

Means of implementation

(a)	Financing and cost evaluation

18.41.	The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual 
cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be 
about $1 billion, including about $340 million from the international 
community on grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and order of 
magnitude estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments.  Actual 
costs and financial terms, including any that are non-concessional, will 
depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes Governments 
decide upon for implementation.

(b)	Scientific and technological means

18.42.	States should undertake cooperative research projects to develop 
solutions to technical problems that are appropriate for the conditions in 
each watershed or country. States should consider strengthening and 
developing national research centres linked through networks and supported 
by regional water research institutes.  The North-South twinning of 
research centres and field studies by international water research 
institutions should be actively promoted.  It is important that a minimum 
percentage of funds for water resource development projects is allocated to 
research and development, particularly in externally funded projects.

18.43.	Monitoring and assessment of complex aquatic systems often require 
multidisciplinary studies involving several institutions and scientists in 
a joint programme. International water-quality programmes, such as 
GEMS/WATER, should be oriented towards the water-quality of developing 
countries.  User-friendly software and Geographical Information Systems 
(GIS) and Global Resource Information Database (GRID) methods should be 
developed for the handling, analysis and interpretation of monitoring data 
and for the preparation of management strategies.

(c)	Human resource development

18.44.	Innovative approaches should be adopted for professional and 
managerial staff training in order to cope with changing needs and 
challenges.  Flexibility and adaptability regarding emerging water 
pollution issues should be developed.  Training activities should be 
undertaken periodically at all levels within the organizations responsible 
for water-quality management and innovative teaching techniques adopted for 
specific aspects of water-quality monitoring and control, including 
development of training skills, in-service training, problem-solving 
workshops and refresher training courses.

18.45.	Suitable approaches include the strengthening and improvement of 
the human resource capabilities of local Governments in managing water 
protection, treatment and use, particularly in urban areas, and the 
establishment of national and regional technical and engineering courses on 
the subjects of water-quality protection and control at existing schools 
and education/training courses on water resources protection and 
conservation for laboratory and field technicians, women and other 
water-user groups.

(d)	Capacity-building

18.46.	The effective protection of water resources and ecosystems from 
pollution requires considerable upgrading of most countries' present 
capacities.  Water-quality management programmes require a certain minimum 
infrastructure and staff to identify and implement technical solutions and 
to enforce regulatory action.  One of the key problems today and for the 
future is the sustained operation and maintenance of these facilities.  In 
order not to allow resources gained from previous investments to 
deteriorate further, immediate action is required in a number of areas.


D.  Drinking-water supply and sanitation

Basis for action

18.47.	Safe water-supplies and environmental sanitation are vital for 
protecting the environment, improving health and alleviating poverty.  Safe 
water is also crucial to many traditional and cultural activities.  An 
estimated 80 per cent of all diseases and over one third of deaths in 
developing countries are caused by the consumption of contaminated water, 
and on average as much as one tenth of each person's productive time is 
sacrificed to water-related diseases.  Concerted efforts during the 1980s 
brought water and sanitation services to hundreds of millions of the 
world's poorest people.  The most outstanding of these efforts was the 
launching in 1981 of the International Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation 
Decade, which resulted from the Mar del Plata Action Plan adopted by the 
United Nations Water Conference in 1977.  The commonly agreed premise was 
that "all peoples, whatever their stage of development and their social and 
economic conditions, have the right to have access to drinking water in 
quantities and of a quality equal to their basic needs". 2/  The target of 
the Decade was to provide safe drinking-water and sanitation to underserved 
urban and rural areas by 1990, but even the unprecedented progress achieved 
during the Decade was not enough.  One in three people in the developing 
world still lacks these two most basic requirements for health and dignity.  
It is also recognized that human excreta and sewage are important causes of 
the deterioration of water-quality in developing countries, and the 
introduction of available technologies, including appropriate technologies, 
and the construction of sewage treatment facilities could bring significant 
improvement.

Objectives

18.48.	The New Delhi Statement (adopted at the Global Consultation on Safe 
Water and Sanitation for the 1990s, which was held in New Delhi from 10 to 
14 September 1990) formalized the need to provide, on a sustainable basis, 
access to safe water in sufficient quantities and proper sanitation for 
all, emphasizing the "some for all rather than more for some" approach.  
Four guiding principles provide for the programme objectives:

	(a)	Protection of the environment and safeguarding of health 
through the integrated management of water resources and liquid and solid 
wastes;

	(b)	Institutional reforms promoting an integrated approach and 
including changes in procedures, attitudes and behaviour, and the full 
participation of women at all levels in sector institutions;
	(c)	Community management of services, backed by measures to 
strengthen local institutions in implementing and sustaining water and 
sanitation programmes;

	(d)	Sound financial practices, achieved through better management 
of existing assets, and widespread use of appropriate technologies.


18.49.	Past experience has shown that specific targets should be set by 
each individual country.  At the World Summit for Children, in September 
1990, heads of State or Government called for both universal access to 
water-supply and sanitation and the eradication of guinea worm disease by 
1995.  Even for the more realistic target of achieving full coverage in 
water-supply by 2025, it is estimated that annual investments must reach 
double the current levels.  One realistic strategy to meet present and 
future needs, therefore, is to develop lower-cost but adequate services 
that can be implemented and sustained at the community level.

Activities

18.50.	All States, according to their capacity and available resources, 
and through bilateral or multilateral cooperation, including the United 
Nations and other relevant organizations as appropriate, could implement 
the following activities:

	(a)	Environment and health:

	(i)	Establishment of protected areas for sources of drinking-water 
supply;

    	(ii)	Sanitary disposal of excreta and sewage, using appropriate 
systems to treat waste waters in urban and rural areas;

   	(iii)	Expansion of urban and rural water-supply and development 
and expansion of rainwater catchment systems, particularly on 
small islands, in addition to the reticulated water-supply 
system;

    	(iv)	Building and expansion, where appropriate, of sewage treatment 
facilities and drainage systems;

	(v)	Treatment and safe reuse of domestic and industrial waste 
waters in urban and rural areas;

    	(vi)	Control of water-associated diseases;

(b)	People and institutions:

(i)	Strengthening of the functioning of Governments in water 
resources management and, at the same time, giving of full 
recognition to the role of local authorities;

    	(ii)	Encouragement of water development and management based on a 
participatory approach, involving users, planners and policy 
makers at all levels;

   	(iii)	Application of the principle that decisions are to be 
taken at the lowest appropriate level, with public consultation 
and involvement of users in the planning and implementation of 
water projects;

    	(iv)	Human resource development at all levels, including special 
programmes for women;

	(v)	Broad-based education programmes, with particular emphasis on 
hygiene, local management and risk reduction;

    	(vi)	International support mechanisms for programme funding, 
implementation and follow-up;

(c)	National and community management:

(i)	Support and assistance to communities in managing their own 
systems on a sustainable basis;

    	(ii)	Encouragement of the local population, especially women, youth, 
indigenous people and local communities, in water management;

   	(iii)	Linkages between national water plans and community 
management of local waters;

    	(iv)	Integration of community management of water within the context 
of overall planning;

(v)	Promotion of primary health and environmental care at the local 
level, including training for local communities in appropriate 
water management techniques and primary health care;

    	(vi)	Assistance to service agencies in becoming more cost-effective 
and responsive to consumer needs;

   	(vii)	Providing of more attention to underserved rural and 
low-income periurban areas;

  	(viii)	Rehabilitation of defective systems, reduction of wastage 
and safe reuse of water and waste water;
    	(ix)	Programmes for rational water use and ensured operation and 
maintenance;

(x)	Research and development of appropriate technical solutions;

   	(xi)	Substantially increase urban wastewater treatment capacity 
commensurate with increasing loads;

	(d)	Awareness creation and public information/participation:

(i)	Strengthening of sector monitoring and information management 
at subnational and national levels;

    	(ii)	Annual processing, analysis and publication of monitoring 
results at national and local levels as a sector management and 
advocacy/awareness creation tool;

   	(iii)	Use of limited sector indicators at regional and global 
levels to promote the sector and raise funds;

    	(iv)	Improvement of sector coordination, planning and 
implementation, with the assistance of improved monitoring and 
information management, to increase the sector's absorptive 
capacity, particularly in community-based self-help projects.

Means of implementation

(a)	Financing and cost evaluation

18.51.	The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual 
cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be 
about $20 billion, including about $7.4 billion from the international 
community on grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and order of 
magnitude estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments.  Actual 
costs and financial terms, including any that are non-concessional, will 
depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes Governments 
decide upon for implementation.

(b)	Scientific and technological means

18.52.	To ensure the feasibility, acceptability and sustainability of 
planned water-supply services, adopted technologies should be responsive to 
the needs and constraints imposed by the conditions of the community 
concerned.  Thus, design criteria will involve technical, health, social, 
economic, provincial, institutional and environmental factors that 
determine the characteristics, magnitude and cost of the planned system.  
Relevant international support programmes should address the developing 
countries concerning, inter alia:
	(a)	Pursuit of low-cost scientific and technological means, as far 
as practicable;

	(b)	Utilization of traditional and indigenous practices, as far as 
practicable, to maximize and sustain local involvement;

	(c)	Assistance to country-level technical/scientific institutes to 
facilitate curricula development to support fields critical to the water 
and sanitation sector.

(c)	Human resource development

18.53.	To effectively plan and manage water-supply and sanitation at the 
national, provincial, district and community level, and to utilize funds 
most effectively, trained professional and technical staff must be 
developed within each country in sufficient numbers.  To do this, countries 
must establish manpower development plans, taking into consideration 
present requirements and planned developments.  Subsequently, the 
development and performance of country-level training institutions should 
be enhanced so that they can play a pivotal role in capacity-building.  It 
is also important that countries provide adequate training for women in the 
sustainable maintenance of equipment, water resources management and 
environmental sanitation.

(d)	Capacity-building

18.54.	The implementation of water-supply and sanitation programmes is a 
national responsibility.  To varying degrees, responsibility for the 
implementation of projects and the operating of systems should be delegated 
to all administrative levels down to the community and individual served.  
This also means that national authorities, together with the agencies and 
bodies of the United Nations system and other external support agencies 
providing support to national programmes, should develop mechanisms and 
procedures to collaborate at all levels.  This is particularly important if 
full advantage is to be taken of community-based approaches and 
self-reliance as tools for sustainability.  This will entail a high degree 
of community participation, involving women, in the conception, planning, 
decision-making, implementation and evaluation connected with projects for 
domestic water-supply and sanitation.

18.55.	Overall national capacity-building at all administrative levels, 
involving institutional development, coordination, human resources, 
community participation, health and hygiene education and literacy, has to 
be developed according to its fundamental connection both with any efforts 
to improve health and socio-economic development through water-supply and 
sanitation and with their impact on the human environment. 
Capacity-building should therefore be one of the underlying keys in 
implementation strategies.  Institutional capacity-building should be 
considered to have an importance equal to that of the sector supplies and 
equipment component so that funds can be directed to both.  This can be 
undertaken at the planning or programme/project formulation stage, 
accompanied by a clear definition of objectives and targets.  In this 
regard, technical cooperation among developing countries owing to their 
available wealth of information and experience and the need to avoid 
"reinventing the wheel", is crucial.  Such a course has proved 
cost-effective in many country projects already.


E.  Water and sustainable urban development

Basis for action

18.56.	Early in the next century, more than half of the world's population 
will be living in urban areas.  By the year 2025, that proportion will have 
risen to 60 per cent, comprising some 5 billion people.  Rapid urban 
population growth and industrialization are putting severe strains on the 
water resources and environmental protection capabilities of many cities.  
Special attention needs to be given to the growing effects of urbanization 
on water demands and usage and to the critical role played by local and 
municipal authorities in managing the supply, use and overall treatment of 
water, particularly in developing countries for which special support is 
needed.  Scarcity of freshwater resources and the escalating costs of 
developing new resources have a considerable impact on national industrial, 
agricultural and human settlement development and economic growth.  Better 
management of urban water resources, including the elimination of 
unsustainable consumption patterns, can make a substantial contribution to 
the alleviation of poverty and improvement of the health and quality of 
life of the urban and rural poor. A high proportion of large urban 
agglomerations are located around estuaries and in coastal zones.  Such an 
arrangement leads to pollution from municipal and industrial discharges 
combined with overexploitation of available water resources and threatens 
the marine environment and the supply of freshwater resources.

Objectives

18.57.	The development objective of this programme is to support local and 
central Governments' efforts and capacities to sustain national development 
and productivity through environmentally sound management of water 
resources for urban use.  Supporting this objective is the identification 
and implementation of strategies and actions to ensure the continued supply 
of affordable water for present and future needs and to reverse current 
trends of resource degradation and depletion.

18.58.	All States, according to their capacity and available resources, 
and through bilateral or multilateral cooperation, including the United 
Nations and other relevant organizations as appropriate, could set the 
following targets:

	(a)	By the year 2000, to have ensured that all urban residents have 
access to at least 40 litres per capita per day of safe water and that 
75 per cent of the urban population are provided with on-site or community 
facilities for sanitation;

	(b)	By the year 2000, to have established and applied quantitative 
and qualitative discharge standards for municipal and industrial effluents;
	(c)	By the year 2000, to have ensured that 75 per cent of solid 
waste generated in urban areas are collected and recycled or disposed of in 
an environmentally safe way.

Activities

18.59.	All States, according to their capacity and available resources, 
and through bilateral or multilateral cooperation, including the United 
Nations and other relevant organizations as appropriate, could implement 
the following activities:

	(a)	Protection of water resources from depletion, pollution and 
degradation:

(i)	Introduction of sanitary waste disposal facilities based on 
environmentally sound low-cost and upgradable technologies;

    	(ii)	Implementation of urban storm-water run-off and drainage 
programmes;

   	(iii)	Promotion of recycling and reuse of waste water and solid 
wastes;

    	(iv)	Control of industrial pollution sources to protect water 
resources;

(v)	Protection of watersheds with respect to depletion and 
degradation of their forest cover and from harmful upstream 
activities;

    	(vi)	Promotion of research into the contribution of forests to 
sustainable water resources development;

   	(vii)	Encouragement of the best management practices for the 
use of agrochemicals with a view to minimizing their impact on 
water resources;

(b)	Efficient and equitable allocation of water resources:

(i)	Reconciliation of city development planning with the 
availability and sustainability of water resources;

    	(ii)	Satisfaction of the basic water needs of the urban population;

   	(iii)	Introduction of water tariffs, taking into account the 
circumstances in each country and where affordable, that 
reflect the marginal and opportunity cost of water, especially 
for productive activities;

(c)	Institutional/legal/management reforms:

(i)	Adoption of a city-wide approach to the management of water 
resources;

    	(ii)	Promotion at the national and local level of the elaboration of 
land-use plans that give due consideration to water resources 
development;

   	(iii)	Utilization of the skills and potential of 
non-governmental organizations, the private sector and local 
people, taking into account the public's and strategic 
interests in water resources;

(d)	Promotion of public participation:

(i)	Initiation of public-awareness campaigns to encourage the 
public's move towards rational water utilization;

    	(ii)	Sensitization of the public to the issue of protecting water 
quality within the urban environment;

   	(iii)	Promotion of public participation in the collection, 
recycling and elimination of wastes;

(e)	Support to local capacity-building:

(i)	Development of legislation and policies to promote investments 
in urban water and waste management, reflecting the major 
contribution of cities to national economic development;

    	(ii)	Provision of seed money and technical support to the local 
handling of materials supply and services;

   	(iii)	Encouragement, to the extent possible, of autonomy and 
financial viability of city water, solid waste and sewerage 
utilities;

    	(iv)	Creation and maintenance of a cadre of professionals and 
semi-professionals, for water, waste-water and solid waste 
management;

	(f)	Provision of enhanced access to sanitary services:

(i)	Implementation of water, sanitation and waste management 
programmes focused on the urban poor;

    	(ii)	Making available of low-cost water-supply and sanitation 
technology choices;

   	(iii)	Basing of choice of technology and service levels on user 
preferences and willingness to pay;

    	(iv)	Mobilization and facilitation of the active involvement of 
women in water management teams;
     	(v)	Encouragement and equipment of local water associations and 
water committees to manage community water-supply systems and communal 
latrines, with technical back-up available when required;

    	(vi)	Consideration of the merits and practicality of rehabilitating 
existing malfunctioning systems and of correcting operation and 
maintenance inadequacies.

Means of implementation

(a)	Financing and cost evaluation

18.60.	The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual 
cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be 
about $20 billion, including about $4.5 billion from the international 
community on grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and order of 
magnitude estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments.  Actual 
costs and financial terms, including any that are non-concessional, will 
depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes Governments 
decide upon for implementation.

(b)	Scientific and technological means

18.61.	The 1980s saw considerable progress in the development and 
application of low-cost water-supply and sanitation technologies.  The 
programme envisages continuation of this work, with particular emphasis on 
development of appropriate sanitation and waste disposal technologies for 
low-income high-density urban settlements. There should also be 
international information exchange, to ensure a widespread recognition 
among sector professionals of the availability and benefits of appropriate 
low-cost technologies.  The public-awareness campaigns will also include 
components to overcome user resistance to second-class services by 
emphasizing the benefits of reliability and sustainability.

(c)	Human resource development

18.62.	Implicit in virtually all elements of this programme is the need 
for progressive enhancement of the training and career development of 
personnel at all levels in sector institutions.  Specific programme 
activities will involve the training and retention of staff with skills in 
community involvement, low-cost technology, financial management, and 
integrated planning of urban water resources management.  Special provision 
should be made for mobilizing and facilitating the active participation of 
women, youth, indigenous people and local communities in water management 
teams and for supporting the development of water associations and water 
committees, with appropriate training of such personnel as treasurers, 
secretaries and caretakers.  Special education and training programmes for 
women should be launched with regard to the protection of water resources 
and water-quality within urban areas.
(d)	Capacity-building

18.63.	In combination with human resource development, strengthening of 
institutional, legislative and management structures are key elements of 
the programme.  A prerequisite for progress in enhancing access to water 
and sanitation services is the establishment of an institutional framework 
that ensures that the real needs and potential contributions of currently 
unserved populations are reflected in urban development planning.  The 
multisectoral approach, which is a vital part of urban water resources 
management, requires institutional linkages at the national and city 
levels, and the programme includes proposals for establishing intersectoral 
planning groups.  Proposals for greater pollution control and prevention 
depend for their success on the right combination of economic and 
regulatory mechanisms, backed by adequate monitoring and surveillance and 
supported by enhanced capacity to address environmental issues on the part 
of local Governments.

18.64.	Establishment of appropriate design standards, water-quality 
objectives and discharge consents is therefore among the proposed 
activities.  The programme also includes support for strengthening the 
capability of water and sewerage agencies and for developing their autonomy 
and financial viability.  Operation and maintenance of existing water and 
sanitation facilities have been recognized as entailing a serious 
shortcoming in many countries.  Technical and financial support are needed 
to help countries correct present inadequacies and build up the capacity to 
operate and maintain rehabilitated and new systems.


F.  Water for sustainable food production and rural development

Basis for action

18.65.	Sustainability of food production increasingly depends on sound and 
efficient water use and conservation practices consisting primarily of 
irrigation development and management, including water management with 
respect to rain-fed areas, livestock water-supply, inland fisheries and 
agro-forestry.  Achieving food security is a high priority in many 
countries, and agriculture must not only provide food for rising 
populations, but also save water for other uses.  The challenge is to 
develop and apply water-saving technology and management methods and, 
through capacity-building, enable communities to introduce institutions and 
incentives for the rural population to adopt new approaches, for both 
rain-fed and irrigated agriculture.  The rural population must also have 
better access to a potable water-supply and to sanitation services.  It is 
an immense task but not an impossible one, provided appropriate policies 
and programmes are adopted at all levels - local, national and 
international.  While significant expansion of the area under rain-fed 
agriculture has been achieved during the past decade, the productivity 
response and sustainability of irrigation systems have been constrained by 
problems of waterlogging and salinization.  Financial and market 
constraints are also a common problem.  Soil erosion, mismanagement and 
overexploitation of natural resources and acute competition for water have 
all influenced the extent of poverty, hunger and famine in the developing 
countries.  Soil erosion caused by overgrazing of livestock is also often 
responsible for the siltation of lakes.  Most often, the development of 
irrigation schemes is supported neither by environmental impact assessments 
identifying hydrologic consequences within watersheds of interbasin 
transfers, nor by the assessment of social impacts on peoples in river 
valleys.

18.66.	The non-availability of water-supplies of suitable quality is a 
significant limiting factor to livestock production in many countries, and 
improper disposal of animal wastes can in certain circumstances result in 
pollution of water-supplies for both humans and animals.  The 
drinking-water requirements of livestock vary according to species and the 
environment in which they are kept.  It is estimated that the current 
global livestock drinking-water requirement is about 60 billion litres per 
day and based on livestock population growth estimates, this daily 
requirement is predicted to increase by 0.4 billion litres per annum in the 
foreseeable future.

18.67.	Freshwater fisheries in lakes and streams are an important source 
of food and protein.  Fisheries of inland waters should be so managed as to 
maximize the yield of aquatic food organisms in an environmentally sound 
manner.  This requires the conservation of water-quality and quantity, as 
well as of the functional morphology of the aquatic environment.  On the 
other hand, fishing and aquaculture may themselves damage the aquatic 
ecosystem; hence their development should conform to guidelines for impact 
limitation.  Present levels of production from inland fisheries, from both 
fresh and brackish water, are about 7 million tons per year and could 
increase to 16 million tons per year by the year 2000; however, any 
increase in environmental stress could jeopardize this rise.

Objectives

18.68.	The key strategic principles for holistic and integrated 
environmentally sound management of water resources in the rural context 
may be set forth as follows:

	(a)	Water should be regarded as a finite resource having an 
economic value with significant social and economic implications reflecting 
the importance of meeting basic needs;

	(b)	Local communities must participate in all phases of water 
management, ensuring the full involvement of women in view of their crucial 
role in the practical day-to-day supply, management and use of water;

	(c)	Water resource management must be developed within a 
comprehensive set of policies for (i) human health; (ii) food production, 
preservation and distribution; (iii) disaster mitigation plans; (iv) 
environmental protection and conservation of the natural resource base;

	(d)	It is necessary to recognize and actively support the role of 
rural populations, with particular emphasis on women.

18.69.	An International Action Programme on Water and Sustainable 
Agricultural Development (IAP-WASAD) has been initiated by FAO in 
cooperation with other international organizations.  The main objective of 
the Action Programme is to assist developing countries in planning, 
developing and managing water resources on an integrated basis to meet 
present and future needs for agricultural production, taking into account 
environmental considerations.

18.70.	The Action Programme has developed a framework for sustainable 
water use in the agricultural sector and identified priority areas for 
action at national, regional and global levels.  Quantitative targets for 
new irrigation development, improvement of existing irrigation schemes and 
reclamation of waterlogged and salinized lands through drainage for 130 
developing countries are estimated on the basis of food requirements, 
agro-climatic zones and availability of water and land.

18.71.	FAO global projections for irrigation, drainage and small-scale 
water programmes by the year 2000 for 130 developing countries are as 
follows: (a) 15.2 million hectares of new irrigation development; 
(b) 12 million hectares of improvement/modernization of existing schemes; 
(c) 7 million hectares installed with drainage and water control 
facilities; and (d) 10 million hectares of small-scale water programmes and 
conservation.

18.72.	The development of new irrigation areas at the above-mentioned 
level may give rise to environmental concerns in so far as it implies the 
destruction of wetlands, water pollution, increased sedimentation and a 
reduction in biodiversity.  Therefore, new irrigation schemes should be 
accompanied by an environmental impact assessment, depending upon the scale 
of the scheme, in case significant negative environmental impacts are 
expected.  When considering proposals for new irrigation schemes, 
consideration should also be given to a more rational exploitation, and an 
increase in the efficiency or productivity, of any existing schemes capable 
of serving the same localities. Technologies for new irrigation schemes 
should be thoroughly evaluated, including their potential conflicts with 
other land uses.  The active involvement of water-users groups is a 
supporting objective.

18.73.	It should be ensured that rural communities of all countries, 
according to their capacities and available resources and taking advantage 
of international cooperation as appropriate, will have access to safe water 
in sufficient quantities and adequate sanitation to meet their health needs 
and maintain the essential qualities of their local environments.

18.74.	The objectives with regard to water management for inland fisheries 
and aquaculture include conservation of water-quality and water-quantity 
requirements for optimum production and prevention of water pollution by 
aquacultural activities.  The Action Programme seeks to assist member 
countries in managing the fisheries of inland waters through the promotion 
of sustainable management of capture fisheries as well as the development 
of environmentally sound approaches to intensification of aquaculture.

18.75.	The objectives with regard to water management for livestock supply 
are twofold:  provision of adequate amounts of drinking-water and 
safeguarding of drinking-water quality in accordance with the specific 
needs of different animal species. This entails maximum salinity tolerance 
levels and the absence of pathogenic organisms. No global targets can be 
set owing to large regional and intra-country variations.


Activities

18.76.	All States, according to their capacity and available resources, 
and through bilateral or multilateral cooperation, including the United 
Nations and other relevant organizations as appropriate, could implement 
the following activities:

	(a)	Water-supply and sanitation for the unserved rural poor:

	(i)	Establish national policies and budget priorities with regard 
to increasing service coverage;

    	(ii)	Promote appropriate technologies;

   	(iii)	Introduce suitable cost-recovery mechanisms, taking into 
account efficiency and equity through demand management 
mechanisms;

    	(iv)	Promote community ownership and rights to water-supply and 
sanitation facilities;

	(v)	Establish monitoring and evaluation systems;

    	(vi)	Strengthen the rural water-supply and sanitation sector with 
emphasis on institutional development, efficient management and 
an appropriate framework for financing of services;

   	(vii)	Increase hygiene education and eliminate disease 
transmission foci;

  	(viii)	Adopt appropriate technologies for water treatment;

    	(ix)	Adopt wide-scale environmental management measures to control 
disease vectors;

	(b)	Water-use efficiency:

(i)	Increase of efficiency and productivity in agricultural water 
use for better utilization of limited water resources;
    	(ii)	Strengthen water and soil management research under irrigation 
and rain-fed conditions;

   	(iii)	Monitor and evaluate irrigation project performance to 
ensure, inter alia, the optimal utilization and proper 
maintenance of the project;

    	(iv)	Support water-users groups with a view to improving management 
performance at the local level;

	(v)	Support the appropriate use of relatively brackish water for 
irrigation;

(c)	Waterlogging, salinity control and drainage:

(i)	Introduce surface drainage in rain-fed agriculture to prevent 
temporary waterlogging and flooding of lowlands;

    	(ii)	Introduce artificial drainage in irrigated and rain-fed 
agriculture;

   	(iii)	Encourage conjunctive use of surface and groundwaters, 
including monitoring and water-balance studies;

    	(iv)	Practise drainage in irrigated areas of arid and semi-arid 
regions;

(d)	Water-quality management:

(i)	Establish and operate cost-effective water-quality monitoring 
systems for agricultural water uses;

    	(ii)	Prevent adverse effects of agricultural activities on 
water-quality for other social and economic activities and on 
wetlands, inter alia, through optimal use of on-farm input and 
the minimization of the use of external input in agricultural 
activities;

   	(iii)	Establish biological, physical and chemical water-quality 
criteria for agricultural water-users and for marine and 
riverine ecosystems;

    	(iv)	Minimize soil run-off and sedimentation;

     	(v)	Dispose properly of sewage from human settlements and of manure 
produced by intensive livestock breeding;

    	(vi)	Minimize adverse effects from agricultural chemicals by use of 
integrated pest management;

   	(vii)	Educate communities about the pollution-related impacts 
of the use of fertilizers and chemicals on water-quality, food 
safety and human health;

(e)	Water resources development programmes:

(i)	Develop small-scale irrigation and water-supply for humans and 
livestock and for water and soil conservation;

    	(ii)	Formulate large-scale and long-term irrigation development 
programmes, taking into account their effects on the local 
level, the economy and the environment;

   	(iii)	Promote local initiatives for the integrated development 
and management of water resources;

    	(iv)	Provide adequate technical advice and support and enhancement 
of institutional collaboration at the local community level;

	(v)	Promote a farming approach for land and water management that 
takes account of the level of education, the capacity to 
mobilize local communities and the ecosystem requirements of 
arid and semi-arid regions;

    	(vi)	Plan and develop multi-purpose hydroelectric power schemes, 
making sure that environmental concerns are duly taken into 
account;

(f)	Scarce water resources management:

(i)	Develop long-term strategies and practical implementation 
programmes for agricultural water use under scarcity conditions 
with competing demands for water;

    	(ii)	Recognize water as a social, economic and strategic good in 
irrigation planning and management;

   	(iii)	Formulate specialized programmes focused on drought 
preparedness, with emphasis on food scarcity and environmental 
safeguards;

    	(iv)	Promote and enhance waste-water reuse in agriculture;

	(g)	Water-supply for livestock:

(i)	Improve quality of water available to livestock, taking into 
account their tolerance limits;

    	(ii)	Increase the quantity of water sources available to livestock, 
in particular those in extensive grazing systems, in order to 
both reduce the distance needed to travel for water and to 
prevent overgrazing around water sources;

   	(iii)	Prevent contamination of water sources with animal 
excrement in order to prevent the spread of diseases, in 
particular zoonosis;

    	(iv)	Encourage multiple use of water-supplies through promotion of 
integrated agro-livestock-fishery systems;

	(v)	Encourage water spreading schemes for increasing water 
retention of extensive grasslands to stimulate forage 
production and prevent run-off;

	(h)	Inland fisheries:

(i)	Develop the sustainable management of fisheries as part of 
national water resources planning;

    	(ii)	Study specific aspects of the hydrobiology and environmental 
requirements of key inland fish species in relation to varying 
water regimes;

   	(iii)	Prevent or mitigate modification of aquatic environments 
by other users or rehabilitate environments subjected to such 
modification on behalf of the sustainable use and conservation 
of biological diversity of living aquatic resources;

    	(iv)	Develop and disseminate environmentally sound water resources 
development and management methodologies for the 
intensification of fish yield from inland waters;

(v)	Establish and maintain adequate systems for the collection and 
interpretation of data on water quality and quantity and 
channel morphology related to the state and management of 
living aquatic resources, including fisheries;

	(i)	Aquaculture development:

(i)	Develop environmentally sound aquaculture technologies that are 
compatible with local, regional and national water resources 
management plans and take into consideration social factors;

    	(ii)	Introduce appropriate aquaculture techniques and related water 
development and management practices in countries not yet 
experienced in aquaculture;

   	(iii)	Assess environmental impacts of aquaculture with specific 
reference to commercialized culture units and potential water 
pollution from processing centres;

    	(iv)	Evaluate economic feasibility of aquaculture in relation to 
alternative use of water, taking into consideration the use of 
marginal-quality water and investment and operational 
requirements.

Means of implementation

(a)	Financing and cost evaluation

18.77.	The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual 
cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be 
about $13.2 billion, including about $4.5 billion from the international 
community on grant or concessional terms.  These are indicative and order 
of magnitude estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments.  
Actual costs and financial terms, including any that are non-concessional, 
will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes 
Governments decide upon for implementation.

(b)	Scientific and technological means

18.78.	There is an urgent need for countries to monitor water resources 
and water-quality, water and land use and crop production; compile 
inventories of type and extent of agricultural water development and of 
present and future contributions to sustainable agricultural development; 
evaluate the potential for fisheries and aquaculture development; and 
improve the availability and dissemination of data to planners, 
technicians, farmers and fishermen.  Priority requirements for research are 
as follows:

	(a)	Identification of critical areas for water-related adaptive 
research;

	(b)	Strengthening of the adaptive research capacities of 
institutions in developing countries;

	(c)	Enhancement of translation of water-related farming and fishing 
systems research results into practical and accessible technologies and 
provision of the support needed for their rapid adoption at the field 
level.

18.79.	Transfer of technology, both horizontal and vertical, needs to be 
strengthened. Mechanisms to provide credit, input supplies, markets, 
appropriate pricing and transportation must be developed jointly by 
countries and external support agencies. Integrated rural water-supply 
infrastructure, including facilities for water-related education and 
training and support services for agriculture, should be expanded for 
multiple uses and should assist in developing the rural economy.

(c)	Human resource development

18.80.	Education and training of human resources should be actively 
pursued at the national level through:  (a) assessment of current and 
long-term human resources management and training needs; (b) establishment 
of a national policy for human resources development; and (c) initiation 
and implementation of training programmes for staff at all levels as well 
as for farmers.  The necessary actions are as follows:

(a)	Assess training needs for agricultural water management;

	(b)	Increase formal and informal training activities;

	(c)	Develop practical training courses for improving the ability of 
extension services to disseminate technologies and strengthen farmers' 
capabilities, with special reference to small-scale producers;

	(d)	Train staff at all levels, including farmers, fishermen and 
members of local communities, with particular reference to women;

	(e)	Increase the opportunities for career development to enhance 
the capabilities of administrators and officers at all levels involved in 
land- and water-management programmes.

(d)	Capacity-building

18.81.	The importance of a functional and coherent institutional framework 
at the national level to promote water and sustainable agricultural 
development has generally been fully recognized at present.  In addition, 
an adequate legal framework of rules and regulations should be in place to 
facilitate actions on agricultural water-use, drainage, water-quality 
management, small-scale water programmes and the functioning of 
water-users' and fishermen's associations.  Legislation specific to the 
needs of the
agricultural water sector should be consistent with, and stem from, general 
legislation for the management of water resources.  Actions should be 
pursued in the following areas:

	(a)	Improvement of water-use policies related to agriculture, 
fisheries and rural development and of legal frameworks for implementing 
such policies;

	(b)	Review, strengthening and restructuring, if required, of 
existing institutions in order to enhance their capacities in water-related 
activities, while recognizing the need to manage water resources at the 
lowest appropriate level;

	(c)	Review and strengthening, where necessary, of organizational 
structure, functional relationships and linkages among ministries and 
departments within a given ministry;

	(d)	Provision of specific measures that require support for 
institutional strengthening, inter alia, through long-term programme 
budgeting, staff training, incentives, mobility, equipment and coordination 
mechanisms;

	(e)	Enhancement of involvement of the private sector, where 
appropriate, in human resource development and provision of infrastructure;

	(f)	Transfer of existing and new water-use technologies by creating 
mechanisms for cooperation and information exchange among national and 
regional institutions.


G.  Impacts of climate change on water resources

Basis for action

18.82.	There is uncertainty with respect to the prediction of climate 
change at the global level.  Although the uncertainties increase greatly at 
the regional, national and local levels, it is at the national level that 
the most important decisions would need to be made. Higher temperatures and 
decreased precipitation would lead to decreased water-supplies and 
increased water demands; they might cause deterioration in the quality of 
freshwater bodies, putting strains on the already fragile balance between 
supply and demand in many countries.  Even where precipitation might 
increase, there is no guarantee that it would occur at the time of year 
when it could be used; in addition, there might be a likelihood of 
increased flooding.  Any rise in sealevel will often cause the intrusion of 
salt water into estuaries, small islands and coastal aquifers and the 
flooding of low-lying coastal areas; this puts low-lying countries at great 
risk.

18.83.	The Ministerial Declaration of the Second World Climate Conference 
states that "the potential impact of such climate change could pose an 
environmental threat of an up to now unknown magnitude ... and could even 
threaten survival in some small island States and in low-lying coastal, 
arid and semi-arid areas" (A/45/696/Add.1, annex III, preamble, para. 2).  
The Conference recognized that among the most important impacts of climate 
change were its effects on the hydrologic cycle and on water management 
systems and, through these, on socio-economic systems.  Increase in 
incidence of extremes, such as floods and droughts, would cause increased 
frequency and severity of disasters.  The Conference therefore called for a 
strengthening of the necessary research and monitoring programmes and the 
exchange of relevant data and information, these actions to be undertaken 
at the national, regional and international levels.

Objectives

18.84.	The very nature of this topic calls first and foremost for more 
information about and greater understanding of the threat being faced.  
This topic may be translated into the following objectives, consistent with 
the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change:

	(a)	To understand and quantify the threat of the impact of climate 
change on freshwater resources;

	(b)	To facilitate the implementation of effective national 
countermeasures, as and when the threatening impact is seen as sufficiently 
confirmed to justify such action;

	(c)	To study the potential impacts of climate change on areas prone 
to droughts and floods.

Activities

18.85.	All States, according to their capacity and available resources, 
and through bilateral or multilateral cooperation, including the United 
Nations and other relevant organizations as appropriate, could implement 
the following activities:

	(a)	Monitor the hydrologic regime, including soil moisture, 
groundwater balance, penetration and transpiration of water-quality, and 
related climate factors, especially in the regions and countries most 
likely to suffer from the adverse effects of climate change and where the 
localities vulnerable to these effects should therefore be defined;

	(b)	Develop and apply techniques and methodologies for assessing 
the potential adverse effects of climate change, through changes in 
temperature, precipitation and sealevel rise, on freshwater resources and 
the flood risk;

	(c)	Initiate case-studies to establish whether there are linkages 
between climate changes and the current occurrences of droughts and floods 
in certain regions;

	(d)	Assess the resulting social, economic and environmental 
impacts;

	(e)	Develop and initiate response strategies to counter the adverse 
effects that are identified, including changing groundwater levels and to 
mitigate saline intrusion into aquifers;

	(f)	Develop agricultural activities based on brackish-water use;

	(g)	Contribute to the research activities under way within the 
framework of current international programmes.

Means of implementation

(a)	Financing and cost evaluation

18.86.	The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual 
cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be 
about $100 million, including about $40 million from the international 
community on grant or concessional terms.  These are indicative and order 
of magnitude estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments.  
Actual costs and financial terms, including any that are non-concessional, 
will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes 
Governments decide upon for implementation.

(b)	Scientific and technological means

18.87.	Monitoring of climate change and its impact on freshwater bodies 
must be closely integrated with national and international programmes for 
monitoring the environment, in particular those concerned with the 
atmosphere, as discussed under other sections of Agenda 21, and the 
hydrosphere, as discussed under programme area B above.  The analysis of 
data for indication of climate change as a basis for developing remedial 
measures is a complex task.  Extensive research is necessary in this area 
and due account has to be taken of the work of the Intergovernmental Panel 
on Climate Change (IPCC), the World Climate Programme, the International 
Geosphere-Biosphere Programme (IGBP) and other relevant international 
programmes.

18.88.	The development and implementation of response strategies requires 
innovative use of technological means and engineering solutions, including 
the installation of flood and drought warning systems and the construction 
of new water resource development projects such as dams, aqueducts, well 
fields, waste-water treatment plants, desalination works, levees, banks and 
drainage channels.  There is also a need for coordinated research networks 
such as the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme/Global Change 
System for Analysis, Research and Training (IGBP/START) network.

(c)	Human resource development

18.89.	The developmental work and innovation depend for their success on 
good academic training and staff motivation.  International projects can 
help by enumerating alternatives, but each country needs to establish and 
implement the necessary policies and to develop its own expertise in the 
scientific and engineering challenges to be faced, as well as a body of 
dedicated individuals who are able to interpret the complex issues 
concerned for those required to make policy decisions.  Such specialized 
personnel need to be trained, hired and retained in service, so that they 
may serve their countries in these tasks.

(d)	Capacity-building

18.90.	There is a need, however, to build a capacity at the national level 
to develop, review and implement response strategies.  Construction of 
major engineering works and installation of forecasting systems will 
require significant strengthening of the agencies responsible, whether in 
the public or the private sector.  Most critical is the requirement for a 
socio-economic mechanism that can review predictions of the impact of 
climate change and possible response strategies and make the necessary 
judgements and decisions.

Notes

	1/	Report of the United Nations Water Conference, Mar del Plata, 
14-25 March 1977 (United Nations publication, Sales No. E.77.II.A.12), 
part one, chap. I, sect. C, para. 35.

	2/	Ibid., part one, chap. I, resolution II.

A21: Freshwater (Ch. 18), Advance 
CopyPage 1




.
