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AGENDA 21, CHAPTER 17



PROTECTION OF THE OCEANS, ALL KINDS OF
SEAS, INCLUDING ENCLOSED AND
SEMI-ENCLOSED SEAS, AND 
COASTAL AREAS AND
THE PROTECTION, RATIONAL USE AND
DEVELOPMENT OF THEIR LIVING RESOURCES






NOTE:	This is a final, advanced version of a chapter of Agenda 21, as 
adopted by the Plenary in Rio de Janeiro, on June 14, 1992.  
This document will be further edited, translated into the 
official languages, and published by the United Nations for the 
General Assembly this autumn.





........../2



INTRODUCTION

17.1.  The marine environment - including the oceans and all seas and 
adjacent coastal areas - forms an integrated whole that is an essential 
component of the global life - support system and a positive asset that 
presents opportunities for sustainable development.  International law, as 
reflected in the provisions of the United Nations Convention on the Law of 
the Sea 1/, 2/ referred to in this chapter of Agenda 21, sets forth rights 
and obligations of States and provides the international basis upon which 
to pursue the protection and sustainable development of the marine and 
coastal environment and its resources.  This requires new approaches to 
marine and coastal area management and development, at the national, 
subregional, regional and global levels, approaches that are integrated in 
content and are precautionary and anticipatory in ambit, as reflected in 
the following programme areas: 3/

	(a)	Integrated management and sustainable development of coastal 
areas, including exclusive economic zones;

	(b)	Marine environmental protection;

	(c)	Sustainable use and conservation of marine living resources of 
the high seas;

	(d)	Sustainable use and conservation of marine living resources 
under national jurisdiction;

	(e)	Addressing critical uncertainties for the management of the 
marine environment and climate change;

	(f)	Strengthening international, including regional, cooperation 
and coordination;

	(g)	Sustainable development of small islands.

17.2.  The implementation by developing countries of the activities set 
forth below shall be commensurate with their individual technological and 
financial capacities and priorities in allocating resources for development 
needs and ultimately depends on the technology transfer and financial 
resources required and made available to them. 

PROGRAMME AREAS

             A.  Integrated management and sustainable development
                 of coastal and marine areas, including exclusive 
                 economic zones

Basis for action

17.3.  The coastal area contains diverse and productive habitats important 
for human settlements, development and local subsistence.  More than half 
the world's population lives within 60 km of the shoreline, and this could 
rise to three quarters by the year 2020. Many of the world's poor are 
crowded in coastal areas.  Coastal resources are vital for many local 
communities and indigenous people.  The exclusive economic zone (EEZ) is 
also an important marine area where the States manage the development and 
conservation of natural resources for the benefit of their people.  For 
small island States or countries, these are the areas most available for 
development activities.  

17.4.  Despite national, subregional, regional and global efforts, current 
approaches to the management of marine and coastal resources have not 
always proved capable of achieving sustainable development, and coastal 
resources and the coastal environment are being rapidly degraded and eroded 
in many parts of the world.

Objectives

17.5.  Coastal States commit themselves to integrated management and 
sustainable development of coastal areas and the marine environment under 
their national jurisdiction. To this end, it is necessary to, inter alia:

	(a)	Provide for an integrated policy and decision-making process, 
including all involved sectors, to promote compatibility and a balance of 
uses;

	(b)	Identify existing and projected uses of coastal areas and their 
interactions;

	(c)	Concentrate on well-defined issues concerning coastal 
management;

	(d)	Apply preventive and precautionary approaches in project 
planning and implementation, including prior assessment and systematic 
observation of the impacts of major projects;

	(e)	Promote the development and application of methods, such as 
national resource and environmental accounting, that reflect changes in 
value resulting from uses of coastal and marine areas, including pollution, 
marine erosion, loss of resources and habitat destruction;


	(f)	Provide access, as far as possible, for concerned individuals, 
groups and organizations to relevant information and opportunities for 
consultation and participation in planning and decision-making at 
appropriate levels.

Activities

(a)	Management-related activities

17.6.  Each coastal State should consider establishing, or where necessary 
strengthening, appropriate coordinating mechanisms (such as a high-level 
policy planning body) for integrated management and sustainable development 
of coastal and marine areas and their resources, at both the local and 
national levels.  Such mechanisms should include consultation, as 
appropriate, with the academic and private sectors, non-governmental 
organizations, local communities, resource user groups, and indigenous 
people.  Such national coordinating mechanisms could provide, inter alia, 
for:

	(a)	Preparation and implementation of land and water use and siting 
policies;

	(b)	Implementation of integrated coastal and marine management and 
sustainable development plans and programmes at appropriate levels;

	(c)	Preparation of coastal profiles identifying critical areas, 
including eroded zones, physical processes, development patterns, user 
conflicts and specific priorities for management;

	(d)	Prior environmental impact assessment, systematic observation 
and follow-up of major projects, including the systematic incorporation of 
results in decision-making;

	(e)	Contingency plans for human induced and natural disasters, 
including likely effects of potential climate change and sealevel rise, as 
well as contingency plans for degradation and pollution of anthropogenic 
origin, including spills of oil and other materials;

	(f)	Improvement of coastal human settlements, especially in 
housing, drinking water and treatment and disposal of sewage, solid wastes 
and industrial effluents;

	(g)	Periodic assessment of the impacts of external factors and 
phenomena to ensure that the objectives of integrated management and 
sustainable development of coastal areas and the marine environment are 
met;

	(h)	Conservation and restoration of altered critical habitats;

	(i)	Integration of sectoral programmes on sustainable development 
for settlements, agriculture, tourism, fishing, ports and industries 
affecting the coastal area;

	(j)	Infrastructure adaptation and alternative employment;

	(k)	Human resource development and training;

	(l)	Public education, awareness and information programmes;
	(m)	Promoting environmentally sound technology and sustainable 
practices;

	(n)	Development and simultaneous implementation of environmental 
quality criteria.

17.7.  Coastal States, with the support of international organizations, 
upon request, should undertake measures to maintain biological diversity 
and productivity of marine species and habitats under national 
jurisdiction.  Inter alia, these measures might include: surveys of marine 
biodiversity, inventories of endangered species and critical coastal and 
marine habitats; establishment and management of protected areas; and 
support of scientific research and dissemination of its results.

(b)	Data and information

17.8.  Coastal States, where necessary, should improve their capacity to 
collect, analyse, assess and use information for sustainable use of 
resources, including environmental impacts of activities affecting the 
coastal and marine areas.  Information for management purposes should 
receive priority support in view of the intensity and magnitude of the 
changes occurring in the coastal and marine areas.  To this end, it is 
necessary to, inter alia:

	(a)	Develop and maintain databases for assessment and management of 
coastal areas and all seas and their resources;

	(b)	Develop socio-economic and environmental indicators;

	(c)	Conduct regular environmental assessment of the state of the 
environment of coastal and marine areas;

	(d)	Prepare and maintain profiles of coastal area resources, 
activities, uses, habitats and protected areas based on the criteria of 
sustainable development;

	(e)	Exchange information and data.

17.9.  Cooperation with developing countries, and, where applicable, 
subregional and regional mechanisms, should be strengthened to improve 
their capacities to achieve the above.

(c)	International and regional cooperation and coordination

17.10.  The role of international cooperation and coordination on a 
bilateral basis and, where applicable, within a subregional, interregional, 
regional or global framework, is to support and supplement national efforts 
of coastal States to promote integrated management and sustainable 
development of coastal and marine areas.

17.11.  States should cooperate, as appropriate, in the preparation of 
national guidelines for integrated coastal zone management and development, 
drawing on existing experience. A global conference to exchange experience 
in the field could be held before 1994.

Means of implementation

(a)	Financing and cost evaluation

17.12.  The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual 
cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be 
about $6 billion including about $50 million from the international 
community on grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and order of 
magnitude estimates only and have not been reviewed by governments.  Actual 
costs and financial terms, including any that are non-concessional, will 
depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes governments 
decide upon for implementation.

(b)	Scientific and technological means

17.13.  States should cooperate in the development of necessary coastal 
systematic observation, research and information management systems.  They 
should provide access to and transfer environmentally safe technologies and 
methodologies for sustainable development of coastal and marine areas to 
developing countries.  They should also develop technologies and endogenous 
scientific and technological capacities.

17.14.  International organizations, whether subregional, regional or 
global, as appropriate, should support coastal States, upon request, in 
these efforts, as indicated above, devoting special attention to developing 
countries.

(c)	Human resource development

17.15.  Coastal States should promote and facilitate the organization of 
education and training in integrated coastal and marine management and 
sustainable development for scientists, technologists, managers including 
community-based managers and users, leaders, indigenous peoples, 
fisherfolk, women and youth, among others.  Management, development, as 
well as environmental protection concerns and local planning issues should 
be incorporated in educational curricula and public awareness campaigns, 
with due regard to traditional ecological knowledge and socio-cultural 
values.

17.16.  International organizations, whether subregional, regional or 
global, as appropriate, should support coastal States, upon request, in the 
areas indicated above, devoting special attention to developing countries.

(d)	Capacity-building

17.17.  Full cooperation should be extended, upon request, to coastal 
States in their capacity-building efforts and, where appropriate, 
capacity-building should be included in bilateral and multilateral 
development cooperation.  Coastal States may consider, inter alia:

	(a)	Ensuring capacity-building at the local level;

	(b)	Consulting on coastal and marine issues with local 
administrations, the business community, the academic sector, resource user 
groups and the general public;

	(c)	Coordinating sectoral programmes while building capacity;

	(d)	Identifying existing and potential capabilities, facilities and 
needs for human resources development and scientific and technological 
infrastructure;

	(e)	Developing scientific and technological means and research;

	(f)	Promoting and facilitating human resource development and 
education;

	(g)	Supporting "centres of excellence" in integrated coastal and 
marine resource management;

	(h)	Supporting pilot demonstration programmes and projects in 
integrated coastal and marine management.


B.  Marine environmental protection

Basis for action

17.18.  Degradation of the marine environment can result from a wide range 
of sources. Land-based sources contribute 70 per cent of marine pollution, 
while maritime transport and dumping-at-sea activities contribute 
10 per cent each.  The contaminants that pose the greatest threat to the 
marine environment are, in variable order of importance and depending on 
differing national or regional situations: sewage, nutrients, synthetic 
organic compounds, sediments, litter and plastics, metals, radionuclides, 
oil/hydrocarbons and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs).  Many of the 
polluting substances originating from land-based sources are of particular 
concern to the marine environment since they exhibit at the same time 
toxicity, persistence and bioaccumulation in the food chain. There is 
currently no global scheme to address marine pollution from land-based 
sources.

17.19.  Degradation of the marine environment can also result from a wide 
range of activities on land.  Human settlements, land use, construction of 
coastal infrastructure, agriculture, forestry, urban development, tourism 
and industry can affect the marine environment.  Coastal erosion and 
siltation are of particular concern.

17.20.  Marine pollution is also caused by shipping and sea-based 
activities. Approximately 600,000 tons of oil enter the oceans each year as 
a result of normal shipping operations, accidents and illegal discharges.  
With respect to offshore oil and gas activities, currently machinery space 
discharges are regulated internationally and six regional conventions to 
control platform discharges have been under consideration.  The nature and 
extent of environmental impacts from offshore oil exploration and 
production activities generally account for a very small proportion of 
marine pollution.

17.21.  A precautionary and anticipatory rather than a reactive approach is 
necessary to prevent the degradation of the marine environment.  This 
requires, inter alia, the adoption of precautionary measures, environmental 
impact assessments, clean production techniques, recycling, waste audits 
and minimization, construction and/or improvement of sewage treatment 
facilities, quality management criteria for the proper handling of 
hazardous substances, and a comprehensive approach to damaging impacts from 
air, land and water.  Any management framework must include the improvement 
of coastal human settlements and the integrated management and development 
of coastal areas.

Objectives

17.22.  States, in accordance with the provisions of the United Nations 
Convention on the Law of the Sea on protection and preservation of the 
marine environment, commit themselves, in accordance with their policies, 
priorities and resources, to prevent, reduce and control degradation of the 
marine environment so as to maintain and improve its life-support and 
productive capacities.  To this end, it is necessary to:

	(a)	Apply preventive, precautionary and anticipatory approaches so 
as to avoid degradation of the marine environment, as well as to reduce the 
risk of long-term or irreversible adverse effects upon it;

	(b)	Ensure prior assessment of activities that may have significant 
adverse impacts upon the marine environment;

	(c)	Integrate protection of the marine environment into relevant 
general environmental, social and economic development policies;

	(d)	Develop economic incentives, where appropriate, to apply clean 
technologies and other means consistent with the internalization of 
environmental costs, such as the polluter pays principle, so as to avoid 
degradation of the marine environment;

	(e)	Improve the living standards of coastal populations, 
particularly in developing countries, so as to contribute to reducing the 
degradation of the coastal and marine environment.

17.23.  States agree that provision of additional financial resources, 
through appropriate international mechanisms, as well as access to cleaner 
technologies and relevant research, would be necessary to support action by 
developing countries to implement this commitment. 

Activities

(a)	Management-related activities

Prevention, reduction and control of degradation of the marine 
environment from land-based activities

17.24.  In carrying out their commitment to deal with degradation of the 
marine environment from land-based activities, States should take action at 
the national level and, where appropriate, at the regional and subregional 
levels, in concert with action to implement programme area A, and take 
account of the Montreal Guidelines for the Protection of the Marine 
Environment from Land-Based Sources.

17.25.  To this end, States, with the support of the relevant international 
environmental, scientific, technical and financial organizations, should 
cooperate, inter alia, to:

	(a)	Consider updating, strengthening and extending the Montreal 
Guidelines, as appropriate;

	(b)	Assess the effectiveness of existing regional agreements and 
action plans, where appropriate, with a view to identifying means of 
strengthening action, where necessary, to prevent, reduce and control 
marine degradation caused by land-based activities;

	(c)	Initiate and promote the development of new regional 
agreements, where appropriate;

	(d)	Develop means of providing guidance on technologies to deal 
with the major types of pollution of the marine environment from land-based 
sources, according to the best scientific evidence;

	(e)	Develop policy guidance for relevant global funding 
mechanisms; 

	(f)	Identify additional steps requiring international cooperation.

17.26.  The UNEP Governing Council is invited to convene, as soon as 
practicable, an intergovernmental meeting on protection of the marine 
environment from land-based activities.

17.27.  As concerns sewage, priority actions to be considered by States may 
include:

	(a)	Incorporating sewage concerns when formulating or reviewing 
coastal development plans, including human settlement plans;

	(b)	Building and maintaining sewage treatment facilities in 
accordance with national policies and capacities and international 
cooperation available;

	(c)	Locating coastal outfalls so as to maintain an acceptable level 
of environmental quality and to avoid exposing shell fisheries, water 
intakes and bathing areas to pathogens;

	(d)	Promoting environmentally sound co-treatments of domestic and 
compatible industrial effluents, with the introduction, where practicable, 
of controls on the entry of effluents that are not compatible with the 
system;

	(e)	Promoting primary treatment of municipal sewage discharged to 
rivers, estuaries and the sea, or other solutions appropriate to specific 
sites;

	(f)	Establishing and improving local, national, subregional and 
regional, as necessary, regulatory and monitoring programmes to control 
effluent discharge, using minimum sewage effluent guidelines and water 
quality criteria and giving due consideration to the characteristics of 
receiving bodies and the volume and type of pollutants.

17.28.  As concerns other sources of pollution, priority actions to be 
considered by States may include:

	(a)	Establishing or improving, as necessary, regulatory and 
monitoring programmes to control effluent discharges and emissions, 
including the development and application of control and recycling 
technologies;

	(b)	Promoting risk and environmental impact assessments to help 
ensure an acceptable level of environmental quality;

	(c)	Promoting assessment and cooperation at the regional level, 
where appropriate, with respect to the input of point source pollutants 
from new installations;

	(d)	Eliminating the emission or discharge of organohalogen 
compounds that threaten to accumulate to dangerous levels in the marine 
environment;

	(e)	Reducing the emission or discharge of other synthetic organic 
compounds that threaten to accumulate to dangerous levels in the marine 
environment;

	(f)	Promoting controls over anthropogenic inputs of nitrogen and 
phosphorus that enter coastal waters where problems, such as eutrophication 
threaten the marine environment or its resources;

	(g)	Cooperating with developing countries, through financial and 
technological support, to maximize the best practicable control and 
reduction of substances and wastes that are toxic, persistent or liable to 
bio-accumulate and to establish environmentally sound land-based waste 
disposal alternatives to sea dumping;

	(h)	Cooperating in the development and implementation of 
environmentally sound land-use techniques and practices to reduce run-off 
to water-courses and estuaries which would cause pollution or degradation 
of the marine environment;

	(i)	Promoting the use of environmentally less harmful pesticides 
and fertilizers and alternative methods for pest control, and considering 
the prohibition of those found to be environmentally unsound;

	(j)	Adopting new initiatives at national, subregional and regional 
levels for controlling the input of non-point source pollutants, which 
require broad changes in sewage and waste management, agricultural 
practices, mining, construction and transportation.

17.29.  As concerns physical destruction of coastal and marine areas 
causing degradation of the marine environment, priority actions should 
include control and prevention of coastal erosion and siltation due to 
anthropogenic factors related to, inter alia, land-use and construction 
techniques and practices.  Watershed management practices should be 
promoted so as to prevent, control and reduce degradation of the marine 
environment.

Prevention, reduction and control of degradation of the marine 
environment from sea-based activities

17.30.  States, acting individually, bilaterally, regionally or 
multilaterally and within the framework of IMO and other relevant 
international organizations, whether subregional, regional or global, as 
appropriate, should assess the need for additional measures to address 
degradation of the marine environment:

	(a)	From shipping, by:

(i)	Supporting wider ratification and implementation of relevant 
shipping conventions and protocols;

    (ii)	Facilitating the processes in (i), providing support to 
individual States upon request to help them overcome the obstacles 
identified by them;

   (iii)	Cooperating in monitoring marine pollution from ships, 
especially from illegal discharges, (e.g., aerial surveillance), and 
enforcing MARPOL discharge, provisions more rigorously;

    (iv)	Assessing the state of pollution caused by ships in 
particularly sensitive areas identified by IMO and taking 
action to implement applicable measures, where necessary, 
within such areas to ensure compliance with generally accepted 
international regulations;

	(v)	Taking action to ensure respect of areas designated by 
coastal States, within their exclusive economic zones, 
consistent with international law, in order to protect and 
preserve rare or fragile ecosystems, such as coral reefs and 
mangroves;

    (vi)	Considering the adoption of appropriate rules on ballast water 
discharge to prevent the spread of non-indigenous organisms;

   (vii)	Promoting navigational safety by adequate charting of coasts 
and ship-routing, as appropriate;

  (viii)	Assessing the need for stricter international regulations to 
further reduce the risk of accidents and pollution from cargo 
ships (including bulk carriers);

    (ix)	Encouraging IMO and IAEA to work together to complete 
consideration of a code on the carriage of irradiated nuclear 
fuel in flasks on board ships;

(x)	Revising and updating the IMO Code of Safety for Nuclear 
Merchant Ships and considering how best to implement a revised 
code;

    (xi)	Supporting the ongoing activity within IMO regarding 
development of appropriate measures for reducing air pollution 
from ships;

   (xii)	Supporting the ongoing activity within IMO regarding the 
development of an international regime governing the 
transportation of hazardous and noxious substances carried by 
ships and further considering whether the compensation funds 
similar to the ones established under the Fund Convention would 
be appropriate in respect of pollution damage caused by 
substances other than oil;

(b)	From dumping, by:

(i)	Supporting wider ratification, implementation and participation 
in relevant Conventions on dumping at sea, including early 
conclusion of a future strategy for the London Dumping 
Convention;

    (ii)	Encouraging the London Dumping Convention parties to take 
appropriate steps to stop ocean dumping and incineration of hazardous 
substances;

	(c)	From offshore oil and gas platforms, by assessing existing 
regulatory measures to address discharges, emissions and safety and the 
need for additional measures;

	(d)	From ports, by facilitating establishment of port reception 
facilities for the collection of oily and chemical residues and garbage 
from ships, especially in MARPOL special areas, and promoting the 
establishment of smaller scale facilities in marinas and fishing harbours.

17.31.  IMO and as appropriate, other competent United Nations 
organizations, when requested by the States concerned, should assess, where 
appropriate, the state of marine pollution in areas of congested shipping, 
such as heavily used international straits, with a view to ensuring 
compliance with generally accepted international regulations, particularly 
those related to illegal discharges from ships, in accordance with the 
provisions of Part III of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the 
Sea.

17.32.  States should take measures to reduce water pollution caused by 
organotin compounds used in anti-fouling paints.

17.33.  States should consider ratifying the Convention on Oil Pollution 
Preparedness, Response and Cooperation, which addresses, inter alia, the 
development of contingency plans on the national and international level, 
as appropriate, including provision of oil-spill response material and 
training of personnel, including its possible extension to chemical spill 
response.

17.34.  States should intensify international cooperation to strengthen or 
establish, where necessary, regional oil/chemical-spill response centres 
and/or, as appropriate, mechanisms in cooperation with relevant 
subregional, regional or global intergovernmental organizations and, where 
appropriate, industry-based organizations.

(b)	Data and information

17.35.  States should, as appropriate, and in accordance with the means at 
their disposal and with due regard for their technical and scientific 
capacity and resources, make systematic observations on the state of the 
marine environment.  To this end, States should, as appropriate, consider:

	(a)	Establishing systematic observation systems to measure marine 
environmental quality, including causes and effects of marine degradation, 
as a basis for management;

	(b)	Regularly exchanging information on marine degradation caused 
by land-based and sea-based activities and on actions to prevent, control 
and reduce such degradation;

	(c)	Supporting and expanding international programmes for 
systematic observations such as the mussel watch programme, building on 
existing facilities with special attention to developing countries;

	(d)	Establishing a clearing-house on marine pollution control 
information, including processes and technologies to address marine 
pollution control and to support their transfer to developing countries and 
other countries with demonstrated needs; 

	(e)	Establishing a global profile and database providing 
information on the sources, types, amounts and effects of pollutants 
reaching the marine environment from land-based activities in coastal areas 
and sea-based sources;

	(f)	Allocating adequate funding for capacity-building and training 
programmes to ensure the full participation of developing countries, in 
particular, in any international scheme under the organs and organizations 
of the United Nations system for the collection, analysis and use of data 
and information. 

Means of implementation

(a)	Financing and cost evaluation

17.36.  The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual 
cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be 
about $200 million from the international community on grant or 
concessional terms.  These are indicative and order of magnitude estimates 
only and have not been reviewed by governments.  Actual costs and financial 
terms, including any that are non-concessional, will depend upon, inter 
alia, the specific strategies and programmes governments decide upon for 
implementation.

(b)	Scientific and technological means

17.37.  National, subregional and regional action programmes will, where 
appropriate, require technology transfer in conformity with chapter 34 and 
financial resources, particularly where developing countries are concerned, 
including:

	(a)	Assistance to industries in identifying and adopting clean 
production or cost-effective pollution control technologies;

	(b)	Planning development and application of low-cost and 
low-maintenance sewage installation and treatment technologies for 
developing countries;

	(c)	Equipment of laboratories to observe systematically human and 
other impacts on the marine environment;

	(d)	Identification of appropriate oil- and chemical-spill control 
materials, including low-cost locally available materials and techniques, 
suitable for pollution emergencies in developing countries;
	(e)	Study of the use of persistent organohalogens that are liable 
to accumulate in the marine environment to identify those that cannot be 
adequately controlled and to provide a basis for a decision on a time 
schedule for phasing them out as soon as practicable;

	(f)	Establishment of a clearing-house for information on marine 
pollution control, including processes and technologies to address marine 
pollution control, and support for their transfer to developing and other 
countries with demonstrated needs. 

(c)	Human resource development

17.38.  States individually or in cooperation with each other and with the 
support of international organizations, whether subregional, regional or 
global, as appropriate, should:

	(a)	Provide training for critical personnel required for the 
adequate protection of the marine environment as identified by training 
needs' surveys at the national, regional or subregional levels;

	(b)	Promote the introduction of marine environmental protection 
topics into the curriculum of marine studies programmes;

	(c)	Establish training courses for oil- and chemical-spill response 
personnel, in cooperation, where appropriate, with the oil and chemical 
industries;

	(d)	Conduct workshops on environmental aspects of port operations 
and development;

	(e)	Strengthen and provide secure financing for new and existing 
specialized international centres of professional maritime education; 

	(f)	States should, through bilateral and multilateral cooperation, 
support and supplement the national efforts of developing countries as 
regards human resource development in relation to prevention and reduction 
of degradation of the marine environment.

(d)	Capacity-building

17.39.  National planning and coordinating bodies should be given the 
capacity and authority to review all land-based activities and sources of 
pollution for their impacts on the marine environment and to propose 
appropriate control measures.

17.40.  Research facilities should be strengthened or, where appropriate, 
developed in developing countries for systematic observation of marine 
pollution, environmental impact assessment and development of control 
recommendations and should be managed and staffed by local experts.

17.41.  Special arrangements will be needed to provide adequate financial 
and technical resources to assist developing countries in preventing and 
solving problems associated with activities that threaten the marine 
environment.

17.42.  An international funding mechanism should be created for the 
application of appropriate sewage treatment technologies and building 
sewage treatment facilities, including grants or concessional loans from 
international agencies and appropriate regional funds, replenished at least 
in part on a revolving basis by user fees. 

17.43.  In carrying out these programme activities, particular attention 
needs to be given to the problems of developing countries that would bear 
an unequal burden because of their lack of facilities, expertise or 
technical capacities.


             C.  Sustainable use and conservation of marine living
                 resources of the high seas 


Basis for action

17.44.  Over the last decade, fisheries on the high seas have considerably 
expanded and currently represent approximately 5 per cent of total world 
landings.  The provisions of the United Nations Convention on the Law of 
the Sea on the marine living resources of the high seas sets forth rights 
and obligations of States with respect to conservation and utilization of 
those resources.

17.45.  However, management of high seas fisheries, including the adoption, 
monitoring and enforcement of effective conservation measures, is 
inadequate in many areas and some resources are overutilized.  There are 
problems of unregulated fishing, overcapitalization, excessive fleet size, 
vessel reflagging to escape controls, insufficiently selective gear, 
unreliable databases and lack of sufficient cooperation between States. 
Action by States whose nationals and vessels fish on the high seas, as well 
as cooperation at the bilateral, subregional, regional and global levels, 
is essential particularly for highly migratory species and straddling 
stocks.  Such action and cooperation should address inadequacies in fishing 
practices, as well as in biological knowledge, fisheries statistics and 
improvement of systems for handling data.  Emphasis should also be on 
multi-species management and other approaches that take into account the 
relationships among species, especially in addressing depleted species, but 
also in identifying the potential of underutilized or unutilized 
populations.

Objectives

17.46.  States commit themselves to the conservation and sustainable use of 
marine living resources on the high seas.  To this end, it is necessary 
to: 

	(a)	Develop and increase the potential of marine living resources 
to meet human nutritional needs, as well as social, economic and 
development goals;

	(b)	Maintain or restore populations of marine species at levels 
that can produce the maximum sustainable yield as qualified by relevant 
environmental and economic factors, taking into consideration relationships 
among species;

	(c)	Promote the development and use of selective fishing gear and 
practices that minimize waste in the catch of target species and minimize 
by-catch of non-target species;

	(d)	Ensure effective monitoring and enforcement with respect to 
fishing activities;

	(e)	Protect and restore endangered marine species;

	(f)	Preserve habitats and other ecologically sensitive areas;

	(g)	Promote scientific research with respect to the marine living 
resources in the high seas;

17.47.  Nothing in paragraph 17.46 above restricts the right of a State or 
the competence of an international organization, as appropriate, to 
prohibit, limit or regulate the exploitation of marine mammals on the high 
seas more strictly than provided for in that paragraph.  States shall 
cooperate with a view to the conservation of marine mammals and, in the 
case of cetaceans, shall in particular work through the appropriate 
international organizations for their conservation, management and study.

17.48.  The ability of developing countries to fulfil the above objectives 
is dependent upon their capabilities, including the financial, scientific 
and technological means at their disposal.  Adequate financial, scientific 
and technological cooperation should be provided to support action by them 
to implement these objectives. 

Activities

(a)	Management-related activities

17.49.  States should take effective action, including bilateral and 
multilateral cooperation, where appropriate at the subregional, regional 
and global levels, to ensure that high seas fisheries are managed in 
accordance with the provisions of the United Nations Convention on the Law 
of the Sea.  In particular, they should:

	(a)	Give full effect to these provisions with regard to fisheries 
populations whose ranges lie both within and beyond exclusive economic 
zones (straddling stocks);

	(b)	Give full effect to these provisions with regard to highly 
migratory species;

	(c)	Negotiate, where appropriate, international agreements for the 
effective management and conservation of fishery stocks;

	(d)	Define and identify appropriate management units;

17.50.  States, should convene, as soon as possible, an intergovernmental 
conference under United Nations auspices, taking into account relevant 
activities at the subregional, regional and global levels, with a view to 
promoting effective implementation of the provisions of the United Nations 
Convention on the Law of the Sea on straddling fish stocks and highly 
migratory fish stocks.  The conference, drawing inter alia on scientific 
and technical studies by FAO, should identify and assess existing problems 
related to the conservation and management of such fish stocks, and 
consider means of improving cooperation on fisheries among States, and 
formulate appropriate recommendations.  The work and the results of the 
conference should be fully consistent with the provisions of UNCLOS, in 
particular the rights and obligations of coastal states and states fishing 
on the high seas.

17.51.  States should ensure that fishing activities by vessels flying 
their flags on the high seas take place in a manner so as to minimize 
incidental catch.

17.52.  States should take effective action consistent with international 
law to monitor and control fishing activities by vessels flying their flags 
on the high seas to ensure compliance with applicable conservation and 
management rules, including full, detailed, accurate and timely reporting 
of catches and effort.

17.53.  States should take effective action, consistent with international 
law, to deter reflagging of vessels by their nationals as a means of 
avoiding compliance with applicable conservation and management rules for 
fishing activities on the high seas.

17.54.  States should prohibit dynamiting, poisoning and other comparable 
destructive fishing practices.

17.55.  States should fully implement General Assembly resolution 46/215 on 
large-scale pelagic drift-net fishing.

17.56.  States should take measures to increase the availability of marine 
living resources as human food by reducing wastage, post-harvest losses and 
discards, and improving techniques of processing, distribution and 
transportation.

(b)	Data and information

17.57.  States, with the support of international organizations, whether 
subregional, regional or global, as appropriate, should cooperate to:

	(a)	Promote enhanced collection of data necessary for the 
conservation and sustainable use of the marine living resources of the high 
seas;

	(b)	Exchange on a regular basis up-to-date data and information 
adequate for fisheries assessment;

	(c)	Develop and share analytical and predictive tools, such as 
stock assessment and bioeconomic models; 

	(d)	Establish or expand appropriate monitoring and assessment 
programmes.

(c)	International and regional cooperation and coordination

17.58.  States, through bilateral and multilateral cooperation and within 
the framework of subregional and regional fisheries bodies, as appropriate, 
and with the support of other international intergovernmental agencies, 
should assess high seas resource potentials and develop profiles of all 
stocks (target and non-target).

17.59.  States should, where and as appropriate, ensure adequate levels of 
coordination and cooperation in enclosed and semi-enclosed seas and between 
subregional, regional and global intergovernmental fisheries bodies.

17.60.  Effective cooperation within existing subregional, regional or 
global fisheries bodies should be encouraged.  Where such organizations do 
not exist, States should, as appropriate, cooperate to establish such 
organizations.

17.61.  States with an interest in a high seas fishery regulated by an 
existing subregional and/or regional high seas fisheries organization of 
which they are not members should be encouraged to join that organization, 
where appropriate.

17.62.  States recognize:

	(a)	The responsibility of the International Whaling Commission for 
the conservation and management of whale stocks and the regulation of 
whaling pursuant to the 1946 International Convention for the Regulation of 
Whaling;

	(b)	The work of the International Whaling Commission Scientific 
Committee in carrying out studies of large whales in particular, as well as 
of other cetaceans;

	(c)	The work of other organizations, such as the Inter-American 
Tropical Tuna Commission and the Agreement on Small Cetaceans in the Baltic 
and North Sea under the Bonn Convention, in the conservation, management 
and study of cetaceans and other marine mammals.

17.63.  States should cooperate for the conservation, management and study 
of cetaceans.

Means of implementation

(a)	Financing and cost evaluation

17.64.  The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual 
cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be 
about $12 million from the international community on grant or concessional 
terms.  These are indicative and order of magnitude estimates only and have 
not been reviewed by governments.  Actual costs and financial terms, 
including any that are non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the 
specific strategies and programmes governments decide upon for 
implementation.

(b)	Scientific and technological means

17.65.  States, with the support of relevant international organizations, 
where necessary, should develop collaborative technical and research 
programmes to improve understanding of the life cycles and migrations of 
species found on the high seas, including identifying critical areas and 
life stages.

17.66.  States, with the support of relevant international organizations, 
whether subregional, regional or global, as appropriate, should:

	(a)	Develop databases on the high seas marine living resources and 
fisheries;

	(b)	Collect and correlate marine environmental data with high seas 
marine living resources data, including the impacts of regional and global 
changes brought about by natural causes and by human activities;

	(c)	Cooperate in coordinating research programmes to provide the 
knowledge necessary to manage high seas resources.

(c)	Human resources development

17.67.  Human resources development at the national level should be 
targeted at both development and management of high seas resources, 
including training in high seas fishing techniques and in high seas 
resource assessment, strengthening cadres of personnel to deal with high 
seas resource management and conservation and related environmental issues, 
and training observers and inspectors to be placed on fishing vessels.

(d)	Capacity-building

17.68.  States, with the support, where appropriate, of relevant 
international organizations, whether subregional, regional or global, 
should cooperate to develop or upgrade systems and institutional structures 
for monitoring, control and surveillance, as well as the research capacity 
for assessment of marine living resource populations.

17.69.  Special support, including cooperation among States, will be needed 
to enhance the capacities of developing countries in the areas of data and 
information, scientific and technological means, and human resource 
development in order to participate effectively in the conservation and 
sustainable utilization of high seas marine living resources.


             D.  Sustainable use and conservation of marine living
                 resources under national jurisdiction 

Basis for action

17.70.  Marine fisheries yield 80 to 90 million tons of fish and shellfish 
per year, 95 per cent of which is taken from waters under national 
jurisdiction.  Yields have increased nearly fivefold over the past four 
decades.  The provisions of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the 
Sea on marine living resources of the exclusive economic zone and other 
areas under national jurisdiction set forth rights and obligations of 
States with respect to conservation and utilization of those resources.

17.71.  Marine living resources provide an important source of protein in 
many countries and their use is often of major importance to local 
communities and indigenous people. Such resources provide food and 
livelihoods to millions of people and, if sustainably utilized, offer 
increased potential to meet nutritional and social needs, particularly in 
developing countries.  To realize this potential requires improved 
knowledge and identification of marine living resource stocks, particularly 
of underutilized and unutilized stocks and species, use of new 
technologies, better handling and processing facilities to avoid wastage, 
and improved quality and training of skilled personnel to manage and 
conserve effectively the marine living resources of the exclusive economic 
zone and other areas under national jurisdiction.  Emphasis should also be 
on multi-species management and other approaches that take into account the 
relationships among species.

17.72.  Fisheries in many areas under national jurisdiction face mounting 
problems, including local overfishing, unauthorized incursions by foreign 
fleets, ecosystem degradation, overcapitalization and excessive fleet 
sizes, underevaluation of catch, insufficiently selective gear, unreliable 
databases, and increasing competition between artisanal and large-scale 
fishing, and between fishing and other types of activities.

17.73.  Problems extend beyond fisheries.  Coral reefs and other marine and 
coastal habitats, such as mangroves and estuaries, are among the most 
highly diverse, integrated and productive of the Earth's ecosystems.  They 
often serve important ecological functions, provide coastal protection, and 
are critical resources for food, energy, tourism and economic development.  
In many parts of the world, such marine and coastal systems are under 
stress or are threatened from a variety of sources, both human and natural.

Objectives

17.74.  Coastal States, particularly developing countries and States whose 
economies are overwhelmingly dependent on the exploitation of the marine 
living resources of their exclusive economic zones, should obtain the full 
social and economic benefits from sustainable utilization of marine living 
resources within their exclusive economic zones and other areas under 
national jurisdiction. 

17.75.  States commit themselves to the conservation and sustainable use of 
marine living resources under national jurisdiction.  To this end, it is 
necessary to: 

	(a)	Develop and increase the potential of marine living resources 
to meet human nutritional needs, as well as social, economic and 
development goals;

	(b)	Take into account traditional knowledge and interests of local 
communities, small-scale artisanal fisheries and indigenous people in 
development and management programmes;

	(c)	Maintain or restore populations of marine species at levels 
that can produce the maximum sustainable yield as qualified by relevant 
environmental and economic factors, taking into consideration relationships 
among species;

	(d)	Promote the development and use of selective fishing gear and 
practices that minimize waste in the catch of target species and minimize 
by-catch of non-target species;

	(e)	Protect and restore endangered marine species;

	(f)	Preserve rare or fragile ecosystems, as well as habitats and 
other ecologically sensitive areas.

17.76.  Nothing in paragraph 17.75 above restricts the right of a coastal 
State or the competence of an international organization, as appropriate, 
to prohibit, limit or regulate the exploitation of marine mammals more 
strictly than provided for in that paragraph. States shall cooperate with a 
view to the conservation of marine mammals and in the case of cetaceans 
shall in particular work through the appropriate international 
organizations for their conservation, management and study.

17.77.  The ability of developing countries to fulfil the above objectives 
is dependent upon their capabilities, including the financial, scientific 
and technological means at their disposal.  Adequate financial, scientific 
and technological cooperation should be provided to support action by them 
to implement these objectives. 

Activities

(a)	Management-related activities

17.78.  States should ensure that marine living resources of the exclusive 
economic zone and other areas under national jurisdiction are conserved and 
managed in accordance with the provisions of the United Nations Convention 
on the Law of the Sea.

17.79.  Coastal States, individually or through bilateral and/or 
multilateral cooperation and with the support, as appropriate of 
international organizations, whether subregional, regional or global, 
should inter alia:

	(a)	Assess the potential of marine living resources, including 
underutilized or unutilized stocks and species, by developing inventories, 
where necessary, for their conservation and sustainable use;

	(b)	Implement strategies for the sustainable use of marine living 
resources, taking into account the special needs and interests of 
small-scale artisanal fisheries, local communities and indigenous people to 
meet human nutritional and other development needs;

	(c)	Implement, in particular in developing countries, mechanisms to 
develop mariculture, aquaculture and small-scale, deep-sea and oceanic 
fisheries within areas under national jurisdiction where assessments show 
that marine living resources are potentially available;

	(d)	Strengthen their legal and regulatory frameworks, where 
appropriate, including management, enforcement and surveillance 
capabilities, to regulate activities related to the above strategies;

	(e)	Take measures to increase the availability of marine living 
resources as human food by reducing wastage, post-harvest losses and 
discards, and improving techniques of processing, distribution and 
transportation;

	(f)	Develop and promote the use of environmentally sound technology 
under criteria compatible with the sustainable use of marine living 
resources, including assessment of the environmental impact of major new 
fishery practices;

	(g)	Enhance the productivity and utilization of their marine living 
resources for food and income.

17.80.  States, in implementing the provisions of the United Nations 
Convention on the Law of the Sea, should address the issues of straddling 
stocks and highly migratory species, and taking fully into account the 
objective set out in paragraph 17.74, access to the surplus of allowable 
catches.
17.81.  Coastal States should explore the scope for expanding recreational 
and tourist activities based on marine living resources, including those 
for providing alternative sources of income.  Such activities should be 
compatible with conservation and sustainable development policies and 
plans.

17.82.  Coastal States should support the sustainability of small-scale 
artisanal fisheries. To this end, they should, as appropriate:

	(a)	Integrate small-scale artisanal fisheries development in marine 
and coastal planning, taking into account the interests and, where 
appropriate, encouraging representation of fishermen, small-scale 
fisherworkers, women, local communities and indigenous people;

	(b)	Recognize the rights of small-scale fishworkers and the special 
situation of indigenous people and local communities, including their 
rights to utilization and protection of their habitats on a sustainable 
basis;

	(c)	Develop systems for the acquisition and recording of 
traditional knowledge concerning marine living resources and environment 
and promote the incorporation of such knowledge into management systems.

17.83.  Coastal States should ensure that, in the negotiation and 
implementation of international agreements on the development or 
conservation of marine living resources, the interests of local communities 
and indigenous people are taken into account, in particular their right to 
subsistence.

17.84.  Coastal States, with the support, as appropriate, of international 
organizations should conduct analyses of the potential for aquaculture in 
marine and coastal areas under national jurisdiction and apply appropriate 
safeguards as to the introduction of new species.

17.85.  States should prohibit dynamiting, poisoning and other comparable 
destructive fishing practices.

17.86.  States should identify marine ecosystems exhibiting high levels of 
biodiversity and productivity and other critical habitat areas and provide 
necessary limitations on use in these areas, through, inter alia, 
designation of protected areas.  Priority should be accorded, as 
appropriate, to:

	(a)	Coral reef ecosystems;

	(b)	Estuaries;

	(c)	Temperate and tropical wetlands, including mangroves;

	(d)	Seagrass beds;

	(e)	Other spawning and nursery areas.

(b)	Data and information

17.87.  States, individually or through bilateral and multilateral 
cooperation and with the support, as appropriate, of international 
organizations, whether subregional, regional or global, should:

	(a)	Promote enhanced collection and exchange of data necessary for 
the conservation and sustainable use of the marine living resources under 
national jurisdiction;

	(b)	Exchange on a regular basis up-to-date data and information 
necessary for fisheries assessment;

	(c)	Develop and share analytical and predictive tools, such as 
stock assessment and bioeconomic models;

	(d)	Establish or expand appropriate monitoring and assessment 
programmes;

	(e)	Complete/update marine biodiversity, marine living resource and 
critical habitat profiles of exclusive economic zones and other areas under 
national jurisdiction, taking account of changes in the environment brought 
about by natural causes as well as human activities.

(c)	International and regional cooperation and coordination

17.88.  States, through bilateral and multilateral cooperation, and with 
the support of relevant United Nations and other international 
organizations, should cooperate to:

	(a)	Develop financial and technical cooperation to enhance the 
capacities of developing countries in small-scale and oceanic fisheries, as 
well as in coastal aquaculture and mariculture; 

	(b)	Promote the contribution of marine living resources to 
eliminate malnutrition and to achieve food self-sufficiency in developing 
countries, inter alia, by minimizing post-harvest losses and managing 
stocks for guaranteed sustainable yields;

	(c)	Develop agreed criteria for the use of selective fishing gear 
and practices to minimize waste in the catch of target species and minimize 
by-catch of non-target species;

	(d)	Promote seafood quality, including through national quality 
assurance systems for seafood, in order to promote access to markets, 
improve consumer confidence and maximize economic returns.

17.89.  States should, where and as appropriate, ensure adequate 
coordination and cooperation in enclosed and semi-enclosed seas and between 
subregional, regional and global intergovernmental fisheries bodies.

17.90.  States recognize:

	(a)	The responsibility of the International Whaling Commission for 
the conservation and management of whale stocks and the regulation of 
whaling pursuant to the 1946 International Convention for the Regulation of 
Whaling;

	(b)	The work of the International Whaling Commission Scientific 
Committee in carrying out studies of large whales in particular, as well as 
of other cetaceans;

	(c)	The work of other organizations, such as the Inter-American 
Tropical Tuna Commission and the Agreement on Small Cetaceans in the Baltic 
and North Sea under the Bonn Convention, in the conservation, management 
and study of cetaceans and other marine mammals.

17.91.  States should cooperate for the conservation, management and study 
of cetaceans.

Means of implementation

(a)	Financing and cost evaluation

17.92.  The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annnual 
cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be 
about $6 billion including about $60 million from the international 
community on grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and order of 
magnitude estimates only and have not been reviewed by governments.  Actual 
costs will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes 
governments decide upon for implementation.

(b)	Scientific and technological means

17.93.  States, with the support of relevant intergovernmental 
organizations, as appropriate, should:

	(a)	Provide for the transfer of environmentally sound technologies 
to develop fisheries, aquaculture and mariculture, particularly to 
developing countries;

	(b)	Accord special attention to mechanisms for transferring 
resource information and improved fishing and aquaculture technologies to 
fishing communities at the local level;

	(c)	Promote the study, scientific assessment and use of appropriate 
traditional management systems;

	(d)	Consider observing, as appropriate, the FAO/ICES Code of 
Practice for Consideration of Transfer and Introduction of Marine and 
Freshwater Organisms;

	(e)	Promote scientific research on marine areas of particular 
importance for marine living resources, such as areas of high diversity, 
endemism and productivity and migratory stopover points.

(c)	Human resource development

17.94.  States individually, or through bilateral and multilateral 
cooperation and with the support of relevant international organizations, 
whether subregional, regional or global, as appropriate, should encourage 
and provide support for developing countries, inter alia, to:

	(a)	Expand multidisciplinary education, training and research on 
marine living resources, particularly in the social and economic sciences;

	(b)	Create training opportunities at national and regional levels 
to support artisanal including subsistence fisheries, to develop 
small-scale use of marine living resources and to encourage equitable 
participation of local communities, small-scale fishworkers, women and 
indigenous people;

	(c)	Introduce topics relating to the importance of marine living 
resources in educational curricula at all levels.

(d)	Capacity-building

17.95.  Coastal States, with the support of relevant subregional, regional 
and global agencies, where appropriate, should:

	(a)	Develop research capacities for assessment of marine living 
resource populations and monitoring;

	(b)	Provide support to local fishing communities, in particular 
those that rely on fishing for subsistence, indigenous people and women, 
including, as appropriate, the technical and financial assistance to 
organize, maintain, exchange and improve traditional knowledge of marine 
living resources and fishing techniques, and upgrade knowledge on marine 
ecosystems;

	(c)	Establish sustainable aquaculture development strategies, 
including environmental management in support of rural fish-farming 
communities;

	(d)	Develop and strengthen, where the need may arise, institutions 
capable of implementing the objectives and activities related to the 
conservation and management of marine living resources.

17.96.  Special support, including cooperation among States, will be needed 
to enhance the capacities of developing countries in the areas of data and 
information, scientific and technological means and human resource 
development in order to enable them to participate effectively in the 
conservation and sustainable use of marine living resources under national 
jurisdiction.


E.	Addressing critical uncertainties for the management
	 of the marine environment and climate change

Basis for action

17.97.  The marine environment is vulnerable and sensitive to climate and 
atmospheric changes.  Rational use and development of coastal areas, all 
seas and marine resources, as well as conservation of the marine 
environment, requires the ability to determine the present state of these 
systems and to predict future conditions.  The high degree of uncertainty 
in present information inhibits effective management and limits the ability 
to make predictions and assess environmental change.  Systematic collection 
of data on marine environmental parameters will be needed to apply 
integrated management approaches and to predict effects of global climate 
change and of atmospheric phenomena, such as ozone depletion, on living 
marine resources and the marine environment.  In order to determine the 
role of the oceans and all seas in driving global systems and to predict 
natural and human-induced changes in marine and coastal environments, the 
mechanisms to collect, synthesize and disseminate information from research 
and systematic observation activities need to be restructured and 
reinforced considerably.

17.98.  There are many uncertainties about climate change and particularly 
about sealevel rise.  Small increases in sealevel have the potential of 
causing significant damage to small islands and low-lying coasts.  Response 
strategies should be based on sound data.  A long-term cooperative research 
commitment is needed to provide the data required for global climate models 
and to reduce uncertainty.  Meanwhile, precautionary measures should be 
undertaken to diminish the risks and effects, particularly on small islands 
and on low-lying and coastal areas of the world.

17.99.  Increased ultraviolet radiation derived from ozone depletion has 
been reported in some areas of the world.  An assessment of its effects in 
the marine environment is needed to reduce uncertainty and to provide a 
basis for action.

Objectives

17.100.  States, in accordance with provisions of the United Nations 
Convention on the Law of the Sea on marine scientific research, commit 
themselves to improve the understanding of the marine environment and its 
role on global processes.  To this end, it is necessary to: 

	(a)	Promote scientific research on and systematic observation of 
the marine environment within the limits of national jurisdiction and high 
seas, including interactions with atmospheric phenomena, such as ozone 
depletion;

	(b)	Promote exchange of data and information resulting from 
scientific research and systematic observation and from traditional 
ecological knowledge and ensure its availability to policy makers and the 
public at the national level;

	(c)	Cooperate with a view to the development of standard 
inter-calibrated procedures, measuring techniques, data storage and 
management capabilities for scientific research on and systematic 
observation of the marine environment.

Activities

(a)	Management-related activities

17.101.  States should consider, inter alia:

	(a)	Coordinating national and regional observation programmes for 
coastal and near-shore phenomena related to climate change and for research 
parameters essential for marine and coastal management in all regions;

	(b)	Providing improved forecasts of marine conditions for the 
safety of inhabitants of coastal areas and for the efficiency of maritime 
operations;

	(c)	Cooperating with a view to adopting special measures to cope 
with and adapt to potential climate change and sealevel rise, including the 
development of globally accepted methodologies for coastal vulnerability 
assessment, modelling and response strategies particularly for priority 
areas, such as small islands and low-lying and critical coastal areas;

	(d)	Identifying ongoing and planned programmes of systematic 
observation of the marine environment, with a view to integrating 
activities and establishing priorities to address critical uncertainties 
for oceans and all seas;

	(e)	Initiating a programme of research to determine the marine 
biological effects of increased levels of ultraviolet rays due to the 
depletion of the stratospheric ozone layer and to evaluate the possible 
effects.

17.102.  Recognizing the important role that oceans and all seas play in 
attenuating potential climate change, IOC and other relevant competent 
United Nations agencies, with the support of countries having the resources 
and expertise, should carry out analysis, assessments and systematic 
observation of the role of oceans as a carbon sink.

(b)	Data and information

17.103.  States should consider, inter alia:

	(a)	Increasing international cooperation particularly with a view 
to strengthening national scientific and technological capabilities for 
analysing, assessing and predicting global climate and environmental 
change;

	(b)	Supporting the role of the IOC in cooperation with WMO, UNEP 
and other international organizations in the collection, analysis and 
distribution of data and information from the oceans and all seas, 
including as appropriate, through the proposed Global Ocean Observing 
System, giving special attention to the need for IOC to develop fully the 
strategy for providing training and technical assistance for developing 
countries through its Training, Education and Mutual Assistance (TEMA) 
programme;

	(c)	Creating national multisectoral information bases, covering the 
results of research and systematic observation programmes;

	(d)	Linking these databases to existing data and information 
services and mechanisms, such as World Weather Watch and Earthwatch;

	(e)	Cooperating with a view to the exchange of data and information 
and its storage and archiving through the world and regional data centres;

	(f)	Cooperating to ensure full participation of developing 
countries, in particular, in any international scheme under the organs and 
organizations of the United Nations system for the collection, analysis and 
use of data and information.

(c)	International and regional cooperation and coordination

17.104.  States should consider bilaterally and multilaterally and in 
cooperation with international organizations, whether subregional, 
regional, interregional or global, where appropriate:

	(a)	Providing technical cooperation in developing the capacity of 
coastal and island States for marine research and systematic observation 
and for using its results;

	(b)	Strengthening existing national institutions and creating, 
where necessary, international analysis and prediction mechanisms in order 
to prepare and exchange regional and global oceanographic analyses and 
forecasts and to provide facilities for international research and training 
at national, subregional and regional levels, where applicable.

17.105.  In recognition of the value of Antarctica as an area for the 
conduct of scientific research, in particular research essential to 
understanding the global environment, States carrying out such research 
activities in Antarctica should, as provided for in Article III of the 
Antarctic Treaty, continue to:

	(a)	Ensure that data and information resulting from such research 
are freely available to the international community;

	(b)	Enhance access of the international scientific community and 
specialized agencies of the United Nations to such data and information, 
including the encouragement of periodic seminars and symposia.

17.106.  States should strengthen high-level inter-agency, subregional, 
regional and global coordination, as appropriate, and review mechanisms to 
develop and integrate systematic observation networks.  This would include:

	(a)	Review of existing regional and global databases;

	(b)	Mechanisms to develop comparable and compatible techniques, 
validate methodologies and measurements, organize regular scientific 
reviews, develop options for corrective measures, agree on formats for 
presentation and storage, and communicate the information gathered to 
potential users;

	(c)	Systematic observation of coastal habitats and sealevel 
changes, inventories of marine pollution sources and reviews of fisheries 
statistics;

	(d)	Organization of periodic assessments of ocean and all seas and 
coastal area status and trends.

17.107.  International cooperation, through relevant organizations within 
the United Nations system, should support countries to develop and 
integrate regional systematic long-term observation programmes, when 
applicable, into the Regional Seas Programmes in a coordinated fashion to 
implement, where appropriate, subregional, regional and global observing 
systems based on the principle of exchange of data.  One aim should be the 
predicting of the effects of climate-related emergencies on existing 
coastal physical and socio-economic infrastructure.

17.108.  Based on the results of research on the effects of the additional 
ultraviolet radiation reaching the Earth's surface, in the fields of human 
health, agriculture and marine environment, States and international 
organizations should consider taking appropriate remedial measures.

Means of implementation

(a)	Financing and cost evaluation
17.109.  The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual 
cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be 
about $750 million including about $480 million from the international 
community on grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and order of 
magnitude estimates only and have not been reviewed by governments.  Actual 
costs and financial terms, including any that are non-concessional, will 
depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes governments 
decide upon for implementation.

17.110.  Developed countries should provide the financing for the further 
development and implementation of the Global Ocean Observing System.

(b)	Scientific and technological means

17.111.  To address critical uncertainties through systematic coastal and 
marine observations and research, coastal States should cooperate in the 
development of procedures that allow for comparable analysis and soundness 
of data.  They should also cooperate on a subregional and regional basis, 
through existing programmes where applicable, share infrastructure and 
expensive and sophisticated equipment, develop quality assurance procedures 
and develop human resources jointly.  Special attention should be given to 
transfer of scientific and technological knowledge and means to support 
States, particularly developing countries, in the development of endogenous 
capabilities.

17.112.  International organizations should support, when requested, 
coastal countries in implementing research projects on the effects of 
additional ultraviolet radiation.

(c)	Human resource development

17.113.  States, individually or through bilateral and multilateral 
cooperation and with the support, as appropriate, of international 
organizations whether subregional, regional or global, should develop and 
implement comprehensive programmes, particularly in developing countries, 
for a broad and coherent approach to meeting their core human resource 
needs in the marine sciences.

(d)	Capacity-building

17.114.  States should strengthen or establish as necessary, national 
scientific and technological oceanographic commissions or equivalent bodies 
to develop, support and coordinate marine science activities and work 
closely with international organizations.

17.115.  States should use existing subregional and regional mechanisms, 
where applicable, to develop knowledge of the marine environment, exchange 
information, organize systematic observations and assessments, and make the 
most effective use of scientists, facilities and equipment.  They should 
also cooperate in the promotion of endogenous research capabilities in 
developing countries.

            F.  Strengthening international, including
                regional, cooperation and coordination

Basis for action

17.116.  It is recognized that the role of international cooperation is to 
support and supplement national efforts.  Implementation of strategies and 
activities under the programme areas relative to marine and coastal areas 
and seas requires effective institutional arrangements at national, 
subregional, regional and global levels, as appropriate.  There are 
numerous national and international, including regional, institutions, both 
within and outside the United Nations system, with competence in marine 
issues, and there is a need to improve coordination and strengthen links 
among them.  It is also important to ensure that an integrated and 
multisectoral approach to marine issues is pursued at all levels.

Objectives

17.117.  States commit themselves, in accordance with their policies, 
priorities and resources, to promote institutional arrangements necessary 
to support the implementation of the programme areas in this chapter.  To 
this end, it is necessary, as appropriate, to:

	(a)	Integrate relevant sectoral activities addressing environment 
and development in marine and coastal areas at national, subregional, 
regional and global levels, as appropriate;

	(b)	Promote effective information exchange and, where appropriate, 
institutional linkages between bilateral and multilateral national, 
regional, subregional and interregional institutions dealing with 
environment and development in marine and coastal areas;

	(c)	Promote within the United Nations system, regular 
intergovernmental review and consideration of environment and development 
issues with respect to marine and coastal areas;

	(d)	Promote the effective operation of coordinating mechanisms for 
the components of the United Nations system dealing with issues of 
environment and development in marine and coastal areas, as well as links 
with relevant international development bodies.

Activities

(a)	Management-related activities

Global
17.118.  The General Assembly should provide for regular consideration, 
within the United Nations system, at the intergovernmental level of general 
marine and coastal issues, including environment and development 
matters, and should request the Secretary-General and executive heads of 
United Nations agencies and organizations to:

	(a)	Strengthen coordination and develop improved arrangements among 
the relevant United Nations organizations with major marine and coastal 
responsibilities, including their subregional and regional components;

	(b)	Strengthen coordination between those organizations and other 
United Nations organizations, institutions and specialized agencies dealing 
with development, trade and other related economic issues, as appropriate;

	(c)	Improve representation of United Nations agencies dealing with 
the marine environment in United Nations system-wide coordination efforts;

	(d)	Promote, where necessary, greater collaboration between the 
United Nations agencies and subregional and regional coastal and marine 
programmes; 

	(e)	Develop a centralized system to provide for information on 
legislation and advice on implementation of legal agreements on marine 
environmental and development issues.

17.119.  States recognize that environmental policies should deal with the 
root causes of environmental degradation, thus preventing environmental 
measures from resulting in unnecessary restrictions to trade.  Trade policy 
measures for environmental purposes should not constitute a means of 
arbitrary or unjustifiable discrimination or a disguised restriction on 
international trade.  Unilateral actions to deal with environmental 
challenges outside the jurisdiction of the importing country should be 
avoided.  Environmental measures addressing international environmental 
problems should, as far as possible, be based on an international 
consensus.  Domestic measures targeted to achieve certain environmental 
objectives may need trade measures to render them effective.  Should trade 
policy measures be found necessary for the enforcement of environmental 
policies, certain principles and rules should apply.  These could include, 
inter alia, the principle of non-discrimination; the principle that the 
trade measure chosen should be the least trade-restrictive necessary to 
achieve the objectives; an obligation to ensure transparency in the use of 
trade measures related to the environment and to provide adequate 
notification of national regulations; and the need to give consideration to 
the special conditions and development requirements of developing countries 
as they move towards internationally agreed environmental objectives.

	Subregional and regional

17.120.  States should consider, as appropriate:

	(a)	Strengthening, and extending where necessary, intergovernmental 
regional cooperation, the Regional Seas Programmes of UNEP, regional and 
subregional fisheries organizations and regional commissions;

	(b)	Introduce, where necessary, coordination among relevant United 
Nations and other multilateral organizations at the subregional and 
regional levels, including consideration of co-location of their staff;

	(c)	Arrange for periodic intraregional consultations;

	(d)	Facilitate access to and use of expertise and technology 
through relevant national bodies to subregional and regional centres and 
networks, such as the Regional Centres for Marine Technology.

(b)	Data and information

17.121.  States should, where appropriate:

	(a)	Promote exchange of information on marine and coastal issues;

	(b)	Strengthen the capacity of international organizations to 
handle information and support the development of national, subregional and 
regional data and information systems, where appropriate.  This could also 
include networks linking countries with comparable environmental problems;

	(c)	Further develop existing international mechanisms such as 
Earthwatch and GESAMP.

Means of implementation

(a)	Financing and cost evaluation

17.122.  The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual 
cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be 
about $50 million from the international community on grant or concessional 
terms.  These are indicative and order of magnitude estimates only and have 
not been reviewed by governments.  Actual costs and financial terms, 
including any that are non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the 
specific strategies and programmes governments decide upon for 
implementation.
(b)	Scientific and technological means, human resource development and 
capacity-building

17.123.  The means of implementation outlined in the other programme areas 
on marine and coastal issues, under the sections on Scientific and 
technological means, human resource development and capacity-building are 
entirely relevant for this programme area as well.  Additionally, States 
should, through international cooperation, develop a comprehensive 
programme for meeting the core human resource needs in marine sciences at 
all levels.


G.  Sustainable development of small islands

Basis for action

17.124.  Small island developing States, and islands supporting small 
communities are a special case both for environment and development.  They 
are ecologically fragile and vulnerable.  Their small size, limited 
resources, geographic dispersion and isolation from markets, place them at 
a disadvantage economically and prevent economies of scale.  For small 
island developing States the ocean and coastal environment is of strategic 
importance and constitutes a valuable development resource.

17.125.  Their geographic isolation has resulted in their habitation of a 
comparatively large number of unique species of flora and fauna, giving 
them a very high share of global biodiversity.  They also have rich and 
diverse cultures with special adaptations to island environments and 
knowledge of the sound management of island resources.

17.126.  Small island developing States have all the environmental problems 
and challenges of the coastal zone concentrated in a limited land area.  
They are considered extremely vulnerable to global warming and sealevel 
rise, with certain small low-lying islands facing the increasing threat of 
the loss of their entire national territories.  Most tropical islands are 
also now experiencing the more immediate impacts of increasing frequency of 
cyclones, storms and hurricanes associated with climate change.  These are 
causing major set-backs to their socio-economic development.

17.127.  Because small island development options are limited, there are 
special challenges to planning for and implementing sustainable 
development.  Small island developing States will be constrained in meeting 
these challenges without the cooperation and assistance of the 
international community.

Objectives

17.128.  States commit themselves to addressing the problems of sustainable 
development of small island developing States.  To this end, it is 
necessary:

	(a)	To adopt and implement plans and programmes to support the 
sustainable development and utilization of their marine and coastal 
resources, including meeting essential human needs, maintaining 
biodiversity and improving the quality of life for island people;

	(b)	To adopt measures which will enable small island developing 
States to cope effectively, creatively and sustainably with environmental 
change and to mitigate impacts and reduce the threats posed to marine and 
coastal resources.

Activities

(a)	Management-related activities

17.129.  Small island developing States, with the assistance as appropriate 
of the international community and on the basis of existing work of 
national and international organizations, should:

	(a)	Study the special environmental and developmental 
characteristics of small islands, producing an environmental profile and 
inventory of their natural resources, critical marine habitats and 
biodiversity;

	(b)	Develop techniques for determining and monitoring the carrying 
capacity of small islands under different development assumptions and 
resource constraints;

	(c)	Prepare medium- and long-term plans for sustainable development 
that emphasize multiple use of resources, integrate environmental 
considerations with economic and sectoral planning and policies, define 
measures for maintaining cultural and biological diversity and conserve 
endangered species and critical marine habitats;

	(d)	Adapt coastal area management techniques, such as planning, 
siting and environmental impact assessments, using Geographical Information 
Systems (GIS), suitable to the special characteristics of small islands, 
taking into account the traditional and cultural values of indigenous 
people of island countries;

	(e)	Review the existing institutional arrangements and identify and 
undertake appropriate institutional reforms essential to the effective 
implementation of sustainable development plans, including intersectoral 
coordination and community participation in the planning process;

	(f)	Implement sustainable development plans, including the review 
and modification of existing unsustainable policies and practices;

	(g)	Based on precautionary and anticipatory approaches, design and 
implement rational response strategies to address the environmental, social 
and economic impacts of climate change and sealevel rise, and prepare 
appropriate contingency plans;

	(h)	Promote environmentally sound technology for sustainable 
development within small island developing States and identify technologies 
that should be excluded because of their threats to essential island 
ecosystems.

(b)	Data and information

17.130.  Additional information on the geographic, environmental, cultural 
and socio-economic characteristics of islands should be compiled and 
assessed to assist in the planning process.  Existing island databases 
should be expanded and geographic information systems developed and adapted 
to suit the special characteristics of islands.

(c)	International and regional cooperation and coordination

17.131.  Small island developing States, with the support, as appropriate, 
of international organizations, whether subregional, regional or global, 
should develop and strengthen inter-island, regional and interregional 
cooperation and information exchange, including periodic regional and 
global meetings on sustainable development of small island developing 
States with the first global conference on the sustainable development of 
small island developing States, to be held in 1993.

17.132. International organizations, whether subregional, regional or 
global, must recognize the special development requirements of small island 
developing States and give adequate priority in the provision of 
assistance, particularly with respect to the development and implementation 
of sustainable development plans.

Means of implementation

(a)	Financing and cost evaluation

17.133.  The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual 
cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be 
about $130 million including about $50 million from the international 
community on grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and order of 
magnitude estimates only and have not been reviewed by governments.  Actual 
costs and financial terms, including any that are non-concessional, will 
depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes governments 
decide upon for implementation.

(b)	Scientific and technical means

17.134.  Centres for the development and diffusion of scientific 
information and advice on technical means and technologies appropriate to 
small island developing States, especially with reference to the management 
of the coastal zone, the exclusive economic zone and marine resources, 
should be established or strengthened, as appropriate, on a regional basis.

(c)	Human resource development

17.135.  Since populations of small island developing States cannot 
maintain all necessary specializations, training for integrated coastal 
management and development should aim to produce cadres of managers or 
scientists, engineers and coastal planners able to integrate the many 
factors that need to be considered in integrated coastal management.  
Resource users should be prepared to execute both management and protection 
functions and to apply the polluter pays principle and support the training 
of their personnel.  Educational systems should be modified to meet these 
needs and special training programmes developed in integrated island 
management and development.  Local planning should be integrated in 
educational curricula of all levels and public awareness campaigns 
developed with the assistance of non-governmental organizations and 
indigenous coastal populations.

(d)	Capacity-building

17.136.  The total capacity of small island developing States will always 
be limited. Existing capacity must therefore be restructured to meet 
efficiently the immediate needs for sustainable development and integrated 
management.  At the same time, adequate and appropriate assistance from the 
international community must be directed at strengthening the full range of 
human resources needed on a continuous basis to implement sustainable 
development plans.

17.137.  New technologies that can increase the output and range of 
capability of the limited human resources should be employed to increase 
the capacity of very small populations to meet their needs.  The 
development and application of traditional knowledge to improve the 
capacity of countries to implement sustainable development should be 
fostered.

Notes


	1/	References to the United Nations Convention on the Law of the 
Sea in this chapter of Agenda 21 do not prejudice the position of any State 
with respect to signature, ratification of or accession to the Convention.

	2/	References to the United Nations Convention on the Law of the 
Sea in this chapter of Agenda 21 do not prejudice the position of States 
which view the Convention as having a unified character.

	3/	Nothing in the programme areas of this chapter should be 
interpreted as prejudicing the rights of the States involved in a dispute 
of sovereignty or in the delimitation of the maritime areas concerned.

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