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AGENDA 21, CHAPTER 13



MANAGING FRAGILE ECOSYSTEMS:
SUSTAINABLE MOUNTAIN DEVELOPMENT





NOTE:	This is a final, advanced version of a chapter of Agenda 21, as 
adopted by the Plenary in Rio de Janeiro, on June 14, 1992.  
This document will be further edited, translated into the 
official languages, and published by the United Nations for the 
General Assembly this autumn.



........../2




INTRODUCTION

13.1.  Mountains are an important source of water, energy and biological 
diversity. Furthermore, they are a source of such key resources as 
minerals, forest products and agricultural products and of recreation.  As 
a major ecosystem representing the complex and interrelated ecology of our 
planet, mountain environments are essential to the survival of the global 
ecosystem.  Mountain ecosystems are, however, rapidly changing.  They are 
susceptible to accelerated soil erosion, landslides and rapid loss of 
habitat and genetic diversity.  On the human side, there is widespread 
poverty among mountain inhabitants and loss of indigenous knowledge.  As a 
result, most global mountain areas are experiencing environmental 
degradation.  Hence, the proper management of mountain resources and 
socio-economic development of the people deserves immediate action.

13.2.  About 10/per/cent of the world's population depends on mountain 
resources.  A much larger percentage draws on other mountain resources, 
including and especially water.  Mountains are a storehouse of biological 
diversity and endangered species.

13.3.  Two programme areas are included in this chapter to further 
elaborate the problem of fragile ecosystems with regard to all mountains of 
the world.  These are:

	(a)	Generating and strengthening knowledge about the ecology and 
sustainable development of mountain ecosystems;

	(b)	Promoting integrated watershed development and alternative 
livelihood opportunities.


PROGRAMME AREAS

       A.  Generating and strengthening knowledge about the ecology and
		  sustainable development of mountain ecosystems

Basis for action

13.4.  Mountains are highly vulnerable to human and natural ecological 
imbalance. Mountains are the areas most sensitive to all climatic changes 
in the atmosphere.  Specific information on ecology, natural resource 
potential and socio-economic activities is essential.  Mountain and 
hillside areas hold a rich variety of ecological systems.  Because of their 
vertical dimensions, mountains create gradients of temperature, 
precipitation and insolation.  A given mountain slope may include several 
climatic systems - such as tropical, subtropical, temperate and alpine/- 
each of which represents a microcosm of a larger habitat diversity.  There 
is, however, a lack of knowledge of mountain ecosystems. The creation of a 
global mountain database is therefore vital for launching programmes that 
contribute to the sustainable development of mountain ecosystems.

Objectives

13.5.  The objectives of this programme area are:

	(a)	To undertake a survey of the different forms of soils, forest, 
water use, crop, plant and animal resources of mountain ecosystems, taking 
into account the work of existing international and regional organizations;

	(b)	To maintain and generate database and information systems to 
facilitate the integrated management and environmental assessment of 
mountain ecosystems, taking into account the work of existing international 
and regional organizations;

	(c)	To improve and build the existing land/water ecological 
knowledge base regarding technologies and agricultural and conservation 
practices in the mountain regions of the world, with the participation of 
local communities;

	(d)	To create and strengthen the communications network and 
information clearing-house for existing organizations concerned with 
mountain issues;

	(e)	To improve coordination of regional efforts to protect fragile 
mountain ecosystems through the consideration of appropriate mechanisms, 
including regional legal and other instruments;

	(f)	To generate information to establish databases and information 
systems to facilitate an evaluation of environmental risks and natural 
disasters in mountain ecosystems.

Activities

(a)	Management-related activities

13.6.  Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the 
relevant international and regional organizations, should:

	(a)	Strengthen existing institutions or establish new ones at 
local, national and regional levels to generate a multidisciplinary 
land/water ecological knowledge base on mountain ecosystems;

	(b)	Promote national policies that would provide incentives to 
local people for the use and transfer of environment-friendly technologies 
and farming and conservation practices;

	(c)	Build up the knowledge base and understanding by creating 
mechanisms for cooperation and information exchange among national and 
regional institutions working on fragile ecosystems;

	(d)	Encourage policies that would provide incentives to farmers and 
local people to undertake conservation and regenerative measures;

	(e)	Diversify mountain economies, inter/alia, by creating and/or 
strengthening tourism, in accordance with integrated management of mountain 
areas;

	(f)	Integrate all forest, rangeland and wildlife activities in such 
a way that specific mountain ecosystems are maintained;

	(g)	Establish appropriate natural reserves in representative 
species-rich sites and areas.

(b)	Data and information

13.7.  Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the 
relevant international and regional organizations, should:

	(a)	Maintain and establish meteorological, hydrological and 
physical monitoring analysis and capabilities that would encompass the 
climatic diversity as well as water distribution of various mountain 
regions of the world;

	(b)	Build an inventory of different forms of soils, forests, water 
use, and crop, plant and animal genetic resources, giving priority to those 
under threat of extinction. Genetic resources should be protected in situ 
by maintaining and establishing protected areas and improving traditional 
farming and animal husbandry activities and establishing programmes for 
evaluating the potential value of the resources;

	(c)	Identify hazardous areas that are most vulnerable to erosion, 
floods, landslides, earthquakes, snow avalanches and other natural hazards;

	(d)	Identify mountain areas threatened by air pollution from 
neighbouring industrial and urban areas.

(c)	International and regional cooperation

13.8.  National Governments and intergovernmental organizations should:

	(a)	Coordinate regional and international cooperation and 
facilitate an exchange of information and experience among the specialized 
agencies, the World Bank, IFAD and other international and regional 
organizations, national Governments, research institutions and 
non-governmental organizations working on mountain development;

	(b)	Encourage regional, national and international networking of 
people's initiatives and the activities of international, regional and 
local non-governmental organizations working on mountain development, such 
as the United Nations University (UNU), the Woodland Mountain Institutes 
(WMI), the International Center for Integrated Mountain Development 
(ICIMOD), the International Mountain Society (IMS), the African Mountain 
Association and the Andean Mountain Association, besides supporting those 
organizations in exchange of information and experience;

	(c)	Protect Fragile Mountain Ecosystem through the consideration of 
appropriate mechanisms including regional legal and other instruments.

Means of implementation

(a)	Financing and cost evaluation

13.9.  The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual 
cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be 
about $50 million from the international community on grant or concessional 
terms.  These are indicative and order of magnitude estimates only and have 
not been reviewed by Governments.  Actual costs and financial terms, 
including any that are non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the 
specific strategies and programmes Governments decide upon for 
implementation.

(b)	Scientific and technological means

13.10.  Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the 
relevant international and regional organizations, should strengthen 
scientific research and technological development programmes, including 
diffusion through national and regional institutions, particularly in 
meteorology, hydrology, forestry, soil sciences and plant sciences.

(c)	Human resource development

13.11.  Governments at the appropriate level, and with the support of the 
relevant international and regional organizations, should:

	(a)	Launch training and extension programmes in environmentally 
appropriate technologies and practices that would be suitable to mountain 
ecosystems;

	(b)	Support higher education through fellowships and research 
grants for environmental studies in mountains and hill areas, particularly 
for candidates from indigenous mountain populations;

	(c)	Undertake environmental education for farmers, in particular 
for women, to help the rural population better understand the ecological 
issues regarding the sustainable development of mountain ecosystems.

(d)	Capacity-building

13.12.  Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the 
relevant international and regional organizations, should build up national 
and regional institutional bases that could carry out research, training 
and dissemination of information on the sustainable development of the 
economies of fragile ecosystems.


    B.  Promoting integrated watershed development and alternative
		   livelihood opportunities

Basis for action

13.13.  Nearly half of the world's population is affected in various ways 
by mountain ecology and the degradation of watershed areas.  About 
10/per/cent of the Earth's population lives in mountain areas with higher 
slopes, while about 40/per/cent occupies the adjacent medium- and 
lower-watershed areas.  There are serious problems of ecological 
deterioration in these watershed areas.  For example, in the hillside areas 
of the Andean countries of South America a large portion of the farming 
population is now faced with a rapid deterioration of land resources.  
Similarly, the mountain and upland areas of the Himalayas, South-East Asia 
and East and Central Africa, which make vital contributions to agricultural 
production, are threatened by cultivation of marginal lands due to 
expanding population.  In many areas this is accompanied by excessive 
livestock grazing, deforestation and loss of biomass cover.

13.14.  Soil erosion can have a devastating impact on the vast numbers of 
rural people who depend on rainfed agriculture in the mountain and hillside 
areas.  Poverty, unemployment, poor health and bad sanitation are 
widespread.  Promoting integrated watershed development programmes through 
effective participation of local people is a key to preventing further 
ecological imbalance.  An integrated approach is needed for conserving, 
upgrading and using the natural resource base of land, water, plant, animal 
and human resources.  In addition, promoting alternative livelihood 
opportunities, particularly through development of employment schemes that 
increase the productive base, will have a significant role in improving the 
standard of living among the large rural population living in mountain 
ecosystems.

Objectives

13.15.  The objectives of this programme area are:

	(a)	By the year 2000, to develop appropriate land-use planning and 
management for both arable and non-arable land in mountain-fed watershed 
areas to prevent soil erosion, increase biomass production and maintain the 
ecological balance;

	(b)	To promote income-generating activities, such as sustainable 
tourism, fisheries and environmentally sound mining, and to improve 
infrastructure and social services, in particular to protect the 
livelihoods of local communities and indigenous people;

	(c)	To develop technical and institutional arrangements for 
affected countries to mitigate the effects of natural disasters through 
hazard-prevention measures, risk zoning, early-warning systems, evacuation 
plans and emergency supplies.

Activities

(a)	Management-related activities

13.16.  Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the 
relevant international and regional organizations, should:

	(a)	Undertake measures to prevent soil erosion and promote 
erosion-control activities in all sectors;

	(b)	Establish task forces or watershed development committees, 
complementing existing institutions, to coordinate integrated services to 
support local initiatives in animal husbandry, forestry, horticulture and 
rural development at all administrative levels;

	(c)	Enhance popular participation in the management of local 
resources through appropriate legislation;

	(d)	Support non-governmental organizations and other private groups 
assisting local organizations and communities in the preparation of 
projects that would enhance participatory development of local people;

	(e)	Provide mechanisms to preserve threatened areas that could 
protect wildlife, conserve biological diversity or serve as national parks;

	(f)	Develop national policies that would provide incentives to 
farmers and local people to undertake conservation measures and to use 
environment-friendly technologies;

	(g)	Undertake income-generating activities in cottage and 
agro-processing industries, such as the cultivation and processing of 
medicinal and aromatic plants;

	(h)	Undertake the above activities, taking into account the need 
for full participation of women, including indigenous people and local 
communities, in development.

(b)	Data and information

13.17.  Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the 
relevant international and regional organizations, should:

	(a)	Maintain and establish systematic observation and evaluation 
capacities at the national, state or provincial level to generate 
information for daily operations and to assess the environmental and 
socio-economic impacts of projects;

	(b)	Generate data on alternative livelihoods and diversified 
production systems at the village level on annual and tree crops, 
livestock, poultry, beekeeping, fisheries, village industries, markets, 
transport and income-earning opportunities, taking fully into account the 
role of women and integrating them into the planning and implementation 
process.

(c)	International and regional cooperation

13.18.  Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the 
relevant international and regional organizations, should:

	(a)	Strengthen the role of appropriate international research and 
training institutes such as the Consultative Group on International 
Agricultural Research Centers (CGIAR) and the International Board for Soil 
Research and Management (IBSRAM), as well as regional research centres, 
such as the Woodland Mountain Institutes and the International Center for 
Integrated Mountain Development, in undertaking applied research relevant 
to watershed development;

	(b)	Promote regional cooperation and exchange of data and 
information among countries sharing the same mountain ranges and river 
basins, particularly those affected by mountain disasters and floods;

	(c)	Maintain and establish partnerships with non-governmental 
organizations and other private groups working in watershed development.

Means of implementation

(a)	Financial and cost evaluation

13.19.  The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual 
cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be 
about $13 billion including about $1.9 billion from the international 
community on grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and order of 
magnitude estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments.  Actual 
costs and financial terms, including any that are non-concessional, will 
depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes Governments 
decide upon for implementation.


13.20.  Financing for the promotion of alternative livelihoods in mountain 
ecosystems should be viewed as part of a country's anti-poverty or 
alternative livelihoods programme, which is also discussed in chapter/3 
(Combating poverty) and chapter/14 (Promoting sustainable agriculture and 
rural development) of Agenda 21.

(b)	Scientific and technical means

13.21.  Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the 
relevant international and regional organizations, should:

	(a)	Consider undertaking pilot projects that combine environmental 
protection and development functions with particular emphasis on some of 
the traditional environmental management practices or systems that have a 
good impact on the environment;

	(b)	Generate technologies for specific watershed and farm 
conditions through a participatory approach involving local men and women, 
researchers and extension agents who will carry out experiments and trials 
on farm conditions;

	(c)	Promote technologies of vegetative conservation measures for 
erosion prevention, in situ moisture management, improved cropping 
technology, fodder production and agroforestry that are low-cost, simple 
and easily adopted by local people.

(c)	Human resource development

13.22.  Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the 
relevant international and regional organizations, should:

	(a)	Promote a multidisciplinary and cross-sectoral approach in 
training and the dissemination of knowledge to local people on a wide range 
of issues, such as household production systems, conservation and 
utilization of arable and non-arable land, treatment of drainage lines and 
recharging of groundwater, livestock management, fisheries, agroforestry 
and horticulture;

	(b)	Develop human resources by providing access to education, 
health, energy and infrastructure;

	(c)	Promote local awareness and preparedness for disaster 
prevention and mitigation, combined with the latest available technology 
for early warning and forecasting.

(d)	Capacity-building

13.23.  Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the 
relevant international and regional organizations, should develop and 
strengthen national centres for watershed management to encourage a 
comprehensive approach to the environmental, socio-economic, technological, 
legislative, financial and administrative aspects and provide support to 
policy makers, administrators, field staff and farmers for watershed 
development.

13.24.  The private sector and local communities, in cooperation with 
national Governments, should promote local infrastructure development, 
including communication networks, mini- or micro-hydro development to 
support cottage industries, and access to markets.
A21: Mountain (Ch. 13), Advance 
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