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AGENDA 21, CHAPTER 12



MANAGING FRAGILE ECOSYSTEMS:
 COMBATING DESERTIFICATION AND DROUGHT






NOTE:	This is a final, advanced version of a chapter of Agenda 21, as 
adopted by the Plenary in Rio de Janeiro, on June 14, 1992.  
This document will be further edited, translated into the 
official languages, and published by the United Nations for the 
General Assembly this autumn.





........../2



INTRODUCTION

12.1.  Fragile ecosystems are important ecosystems, with unique features 
and resources. Fragile ecosystems include deserts, semi-arid lands, 
mountains, wetlands, small islands and certain coastal areas.  Most of 
these ecosystems are regional in scope, as they transcend national 
boundaries.  This chapter addresses land resource issues in deserts, as 
well as arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid areas.  Sustainable mountain 
development is addressed in chapter 13 of Agenda 21; small islands and 
coastal areas are discussed in chapter/17.

12.2.  Desertification is land degradation in arid, semi-arid and dry 
sub-humid areas resulting from various factors, including climatic 
variations and human activities. Desertification affects about one sixth of 
the world's population, 70/per/cent of all drylands, amounting to 
3.6/billion hectares, and one quarter of the total land area of the world.  
The most obvious impact of desertification, in addition to widespread 
poverty, is the degradation of 3.3/billion hectares of the total area of 
rangeland, constituting 73/per/cent of the rangeland with a low potential 
for human and animal carrying capacity; decline in soil fertility and soil 
structure on about 47/per/cent of the dryland areas constituting marginal 
rainfed cropland; and the degradation of irrigated cropland, amounting to 
30/per/cent of the dryland areas with a high population density and 
agricultural potential.

12.3.  The priority in combating desertification should be the 
implementation of preventive measures for lands that are not yet degraded, 
or which are only slightly degraded.  However, the severely degraded areas 
should not be neglected.  In combating desertification and drought, the 
participation of local communities, rural organizations, national 
Governments, non-governmental organizations and international and regional 
organizations is essential.

12.4.  The following programme areas are included in this chapter:

	(a)	Strengthening the knowledge base and developing information and 
monitoring systems for regions prone to desertification and drought, 
including the economic and social aspects of these ecosystems;

	(b)	Combating land degradation through, inter alia, intensified 
soil conservation, afforestation and reforestation activities;

	(c)	Developing and strengthening integrated development programmes 
for the eradication of poverty and promotion of alternative livelihood 
systems in areas prone to desertification;

	(d)	Developing comprehensive anti-desertification programmes and 
integrating them into national development plans and national environmental 
planning;
	(e)	Developing comprehensive drought preparedness and 
drought-relief schemes, including self-help arrangements, for drought-prone 
areas and designing programmes to cope with environmental refugees;

	(f)	Encouraging and promoting popular participation and 
environmental education, focusing on desertification control and management 
of the effects of drought.


PROGRAMME AREAS

   A.  Strengthening the knowledge base and developing information
	  and monitoring systems for regions prone to desertification
	  and drought, including the economic and social aspects of
	  these ecosystems

Basis for action

12.5.  The global assessments of the status and rate of desertification 
conducted by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) in 1977, 1984 
and 1991 have revealed insufficient basic knowledge of desertification 
processes.  Adequate world-wide systematic observation systems are helpful 
for the development and implementation of effective anti-desertification 
programmes.  The capacity of existing international, regional and national 
institutions, particularly in developing countries, to generate and 
exchange relevant information is limited.  An integrated and coordinated 
information and systematic observation system based on appropriate 
technology and embracing global, regional, national and local levels is 
essential for understanding the dynamics of desertification and drought 
processes.  It is also important for developing adequate measures to deal 
with desertification and drought and improving socio-economic conditions.

Objectives

12.6.  The objectives of this programme area are:

	(a)	To promote the establishment and/or strengthening of national 
environmental information coordination centres that will act as focal 
points within Governments for sectoral ministries and provide the necessary 
standardization and back-up services; to ensure also that national 
environmental information systems on desertification and drought are linked 
together through a network at subregional, regional and interregional 
levels;

	(b)	To strengthen regional and global systematic observation 
networks linked to the development of national systems for the observation 
of land degradation and desertification caused both by climate fluctuations 
and by human impact, and to identify priority areas for action;

	(c)	To establish a permanent system at both national and 
international levels for monitoring desertification and land degradation 
with the aim of improving living conditions in the affected areas.

Activities

(a)	Management-related activities

12.7.  Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the 
relevant international and regional organizations, should:

	(a)	Establish and/or strengthen environmental information systems 
at the national level;

	(b)	Strengthen national, state/provincial and local assessment and 
ensure cooperation/networking between existing environmental information 
and monitoring systems, such as Earthwatch and the Sahara and Sahel 
Observatory;

	(c)	Strengthen the capacity of national institutions to analyse 
environmental data so that ecological change can be monitored and 
environmental information obtained on a continuing basis at the national 
level.

(b)	Data and information

12.8.  Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the 
relevant international and regional organizations, should:

	(a)	Review and study the means for measuring the ecological, 
economic and social consequences of desertification and land degradation 
and introduce the results of these studies internationally into 
desertification and land degradation assessment practices;

	(b)	Review and study the interactions between the socio-economic 
impacts of climate, drought and desertification and utilize the results of 
these studies to secure concrete action.

12.9.  Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the 
relevant international and regional organizations, should:

	(a)	Support the integrated data collection and research work of 
programmes related to desertification and drought problems;

	(b)	Support national, regional and global programmes for integrated 
data collection and research networks carrying out assessment of soil and 
land degradation;

	(c)	Strengthen national and regional meteorological and 
hydrological networks and monitoring systems to ensure adequate collection 
of basic information and communication among national, regional and 
international centres.

(c)	International and regional cooperation and coordination

12.10.  Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the 
relevant international and regional organizations, should:

	(a)	Strengthen regional programmes and international cooperation, 
such as the Permanent Inter-State Committee on Drought Control in the Sahel 
(CILSS), the Intergovernmental Authority for Drought and Development 
(IGADD), the Southern African Development Coordination Conference (SADCC), 
the Arab Maghreb Union and other regional organizations, as well as such 
organizations as the Sahara and Sahel Observatory;

	(b)	Establish and/or develop a comprehensive desertification, land 
degradation and human condition database component that incorporates both 
physical and socio-economic parameters.  This should be based on existing 
and, where necessary, additional facilities, such as those of Earthwatch 
and other information systems of international, regional and national 
institutions strengthened for this purpose;

	(c)	Determine benchmarks and define indicators of progress that 
facilitate the work of local and regional organizations in tracking 
progress in the fight for anti-desertification.  Particular attention 
should be paid to indicators of local participation.

Means of implementation

(a)	Financing and cost evaluation

12.11.  The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual 
cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be 
about $350 million including about $175 million from the international 
community on grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and order of 
magnitude estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments.  Actual 
costs and financial terms, including any that are non-concessional, will 
depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes Governments 
decide upon for implementation.

(b)	Scientific and technological means

12.12.  Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the 
relevant international and regional organizations working on the issue of 
desertification and drought, should:

	(a)	Undertake and update existing inventories of natural resources, 
such as energy, water, soil, minerals, plant and animal access to food, as 
well as other resources, such as housing, employment, health, education and 
demographic distribution in time and space;

	(b)	Develop integrated information systems for environmental 
monitoring, accounting and impact assessment;

	(c)	International bodies should cooperate with national Governments 
to facilitate the acquisition and development of appropriate technology for 
monitoring and combating drought and desertification.

(c)	Human resource development

12.13.  Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the 
relevant international and regional organizations working on the issue of 
desertification and drought, should develop the technical and professional 
skills of people engaged in monitoring and assessing the issue of 
desertification and drought.

(d)	Capacity-building

12.14.  Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the 
relevant international and regional organizations working on the issue of 
desertification and drought, should:

	(a)	Strengthen national and local institutions by providing 
adequate staff equipment and finance for assessing desertification;

	(b)	Promote the involvement of the local population, particularly 
women and youth, in the collection and utilization of environmental 
information through education and awareness-building.


		    B.  Combating land degradation through, inter/alia,
			   intensified soil conservation, afforestation
			   and reforestation activities

Basis for action

12.15.  Desertification affects about 3.6/billion hectares, which is about 
70/per/cent of the total area of the world's drylands or nearly one quarter 
of the global land area.  In combating desertification on rangeland, 
rainfed cropland and irrigated land, preventative measures should be 
launched in areas which are not yet affected or are only slightly affected 
by desertification; corrective measures should be implemented to sustain 
the productivity of moderately desertified land; and rehabilitative 
measures should be taken to recover severely or very severely desertified 
drylands.

12.16.  An increasing vegetation cover would promote and stabilize the 
hydrological balance in the dryland areas and maintain land quality and 
land productivity.  Prevention of not yet degraded land and application of 
corrective measures and rehabilitation of moderate and severely degraded 
drylands, including areas affected by sand dune movements, through the 
introduction of environmentally sound, socially acceptable, fair and 
economically feasible land-use systems.  This will enhance the land 
carrying capacity and maintenance of biotic resources in fragile 
ecosystems.

Objectives

12.17.  The objectives of this programme area are:

	(a)	As regards areas not yet affected or only slightly affected by 
desertification, to ensure appropriate management of existing natural 
formations (including forests) for the conservation of biodiversity, 
watershed protection, sustainability of their production and agricultural 
development, and other purposes, with the full participation of indigenous 
people;

	(b)	To rehabilitate moderately to severely desertified drylands for 
productive utilization and sustain their productivity for 
agropastoral/agroforestry development through, inter alia, soil and water 
conservation;

	(c)	To increase the vegetation cover and support management of 
biotic resources in regions affected or prone to desertification and 
drought, notably through such activities as afforestation/reforestation, 
agroforestry, community forestry and vegetation retention schemes;

	(d)	To improve management of forest resources, including woodfuel, 
and to reduce woodfuel consumption through more efficient utilization, 
conservation and the enhancement, development and use of other sources of 
energy, including alternative sources of energy.

Activities

(a)	Management-related activities

12.18.  Governments at the appropriate level, and with the support of the 
relevant international and regional organizations, should:

	(a)	Implement urgent direct preventive measures in drylands that 
are vulnerable but not yet affected, or only slightly desertified drylands, 
by introducing (i)/improved land-use policies and practices for more 
sustainable land productivity; (ii)/appropriate, environmentally sound and 
economically feasible agricultural and pastoral technologies; and (iii) 
improved management of soil and water resources;

	(b)	Carry out accelerated afforestation and reforestation 
programmes, using drought-resistant, fast-growing species, in particular 
native ones, including legumes and other species, combined with 
community-based agroforestry schemes.  In this regard, creation of 
large-scale reforestation and afforestation schemes, particularly through 
the establishment of green belts, should be considered, bearing in mind the 
multiple benefits of such measures;

	(c)	Implement urgent direct corrective measures in moderately to 
severely desertified drylands, in addition to the measures listed in 
paragraph/19/(a) above, with a view to restoring and sustaining their 
productivity;

	(d)	Promote improved land/water/crop-management systems, making it 
possible to combat salinization in existing irrigated croplands; and to 
stabilize rainfed croplands and introduce improved soil/crop-management 
systems into land-use practice;

	(e)	Promote participatory management of natural resources, 
including rangeland, to meet both the needs of rural populations and 
conservation purposes, based on innovative or adapted indigenous 
technologies;

	(f)	Promote in situ protection and conservation of special 
ecological areas through legislation and other means for the purpose of 
combating desertification while ensuring the protection of biodiversity;

	(g)	Promote and encourage investment in forestry development in 
drylands through various incentives, including legislative measures;

	(h)	Promote the development and use of sources of energy which will 
lessen pressure on ligneous resources, including alternative sources of 
energy and improved stoves.  

(b)	Data and information

12.19.  Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the 
relevant international and regional organizations, should:

	(a)	Develop land-use models based on local practices for the 
improvement of such practices, with a focus on preventing land degradation.  
The models should give a better understanding of the variety of natural and 
human-induced factors that may contribute to desertification.  Models 
should incorporate the interaction of both new and traditional practices to 
prevent land degradation and reflect the resilience of the whole ecological 
and social system;

	(b)	Develop, test and introduce, with due regard to environmental 
security considerations, drought resistant, fast-growing and productive 
plant species appropriate to the environment of the regions concerned.
(c)	International and regional cooperation and coordination

12.20.  The appropriate United Nations agencies, international and regional 
organizations, non-governmental organizations and bilateral agencies 
should:

	(a)	Coordinate their roles in combating land degradation and 
promoting reforestation, agroforestry and land-management systems in 
affected countries;

	(b)	Support regional and subregional activities in technology 
development and dissemination, training and programme implementation to 
arrest dryland degradation.

12.21.  The national Governments concerned, the appropriate United Nations 
agencies and bilateral agencies should strengthen the coordinating role in 
dryland degradation of subregional intergovernmental organizations set up 
to cover these activities, such as CILSS, IGADD, SADCC and the Arab Maghreb 
Union.

Means of implementation

(a)	Financing and cost evaluation

12.22  The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual 
cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be 
about $6 billion including about $3 billion from the international 
community on grant or concessional terms.  These are indicative and order 
of magnitude estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments.  
Actual costs and financial terms, including any that are non-concessional, 
will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes 
Governments decide upon for implementation. 

(b)	Scientific and technological means

12.23.  Governments at the appropriate level and local communities, with 
the support of the relevant international and regional organizations, 
should:

	(a)	Integrate indigenous knowledge related to forests, forest 
lands, rangeland and natural vegetation into research activities on 
desertification and drought;

	(b)	Promote integrated research programmes on the protection, 
restoration and conservation of water and land resources and land-use 
management based on traditional approaches, where feasible.

(c)	Human resource development

12.24.  Governments at the appropriate level and local communities, with 
the support of the relevant international and regional organizations, 
should:

	(a)	Establish mechanisms to ensure that land users, particularly 
women, are the main actors in implementing improved land use, including 
agroforestry systems, in combating land degradation;

	(b)	Promote efficient extension-service facilities in areas prone 
to desertification and drought, particularly for training farmers and 
pastoralists in the improved management of land and water resources in 
drylands.

(d)	Capacity-building

12.25.  Governments at the appropriate level and local communities, with 
the support of the relevant international and regional organizations, 
should:

	(a)	Develop and adopt, through appropriate national legislation, 
and introduce institutionally, new and environmentally sound 
development-oriented land-use policies;

	(b)	Support community-based people's organizations, especially 
farmers and pastoralists.


		  C.  Developing and strengthening integrated development
			 programmes for the eradication of poverty and
			 promotion of alternative livelihood systems in
			 areas prone to desertification

Basis for action

12.26.  In areas prone to desertification and drought, current livelihood 
and resource-use systems are not able to maintain living standards.  In 
most of the arid and semi-arid areas, the traditional livelihood systems 
based on agropastoral systems are often inadequate and unsustainable, 
particularly in view of the effects of drought and increasing demographic 
pressure.  Poverty is a major factor in accelerating the rate of 
degradation and desertification.  Action is therefore needed to 
rehabilitate and improve the agropastoral systems for sustainable 
management of rangelands, as well as alternative livelihood systems.

Objectives

12.27.  The objectives of this programme area are:

	(a)	To create the capacity of village communities and pastoral 
groups to take charge of their development and the management of their land 
resources on a socially equitable and ecologically sound basis;

	(b)	To improve production systems in order to achieve greater 
productivity within approved programmes for conservation of national 
resources and in the framework of an integrated approach to rural 
development;

	(c)	To provide opportunities for alternative livelihoods as a basis 
for reducing pressure on land resources while at the same time providing 
additional sources of income, particularly for rural populations, thereby 
improving their standard of living.

Activities

(a)	Management-related activities

12.28.  Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the 
relevant international and regional organizations, should:

	(a)	Adopt policies at the national level regarding a decentralized 
approach to land-resource management, delegating responsibility to rural 
organizations;

	(b)	Create or strengthen rural organizations in charge of village 
and pastoral land management;

	(c)	Establish and develop local, national and intersectoral 
mechanisms to handle environmental and developmental consequences of land 
tenure expressed in terms of land use and land ownership.  Particular 
attention should be given to protecting the property rights of women and 
pastoral and nomadic groups living in rural areas;

	(d)	Create or strengthen village associations focused on economic 
activities of common pastoral interest (market gardening, transformation of 
agricultural products, livestock, herding, etc.);

	(e)	Promote rural credit and mobilization of rural savings through 
the establishment of rural banking systems;

	(f)	Develop infrastructure, as well as local production and 
marketing capacity, by involving the local people to promote alternative 
livelihood systems and alleviate poverty;

	(g)	Establish a revolving fund for credit to rural entrepreneurs 
and local groups to facilitate the establishment of cottage 
industries/business ventures and credit for input to agropastoral 
activities.

(b)	Data and information

12.29.  Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the 
relevant international and regional organizations, should:

	(a)	Conduct socio-economic baseline studies in order to have a good 
understanding of the situation in the programme area regarding, 
particularly, resource and land tenure issues, traditional land-management 
practices and characteristics of production systems;

	(b)	Conduct inventory of natural resources (soil, water and 
vegetation) and their state of degradation, based primarily on the 
knowledge of the local population (e.g., rapid rural appraisal);

	(c)	Disseminate information on technical packages adapted to the 
social, economic and ecological conditions of each;

	(d)	Promote exchange and sharing of information concerning the 
development of alternative livelihoods with other agro-ecological regions.

(c)	International and regional cooperation and coordination

12.30.  Governments at the appropriate level, and with the support of the 
relevant international and regional organizations, should:

	(a)	Promote cooperation and exchange of information among the arid 
and semi-arid land research institutions concerning techniques and 
technologies to improve land and labour productivity, as well as viable 
production systems;

	(b)	Coordinate and harmonize the implementation of programmes and 
projects funded by the international organization communities and 
non-governmental organizations that are directed towards the alleviation of 
poverty and promotion of an alternative livelihood system.

Means of implementation

(a)	Financing and cost evaluation

12.31.  The Conference secretariat has estimated the costs for this 
programme area in chapter 3, "Combatting poverty", and chapter 14, 
"Promoting sustainable agriculture and rural development".

(b)	Scientific and technological means

12.32.  Governments at the appropriate level, and with the support of the 
relevant international and regional organizations, should:

	(a)	Undertake applied research in land use with the support of 
local research institutions;

	(b)	Facilitate regular national, regional and interregional 
communication on and exchange of information and experience between 
extension officers and researchers;

	(c)	Support and encourage the introduction and use of technologies 
for the generation of alternative sources of incomes.

(c)	Human resource development

12.33.  Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the 
relevant international and regional organizations, should:

	(a)	Train members of rural organizations in management skills and 
train agropastoralists in such special techniques as soil and water 
conservation, water harvesting, agroforestry and small-scale irrigation;

	(b)	Train extension agents and officers in the participatory 
approach to integrated land management.

(d)	Capacity-building

12.34.  Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the 
relevant international and regional organizations, should establish and 
maintain mechanisms to ensure the integration into sectoral and national 
development plans and programmes of strategies for poverty alleviation 
among the inhabitants of lands prone to desertification.


	D.  Developing comprehensive anti-desertification programmes
	    and integrating them into national development plans and
	    national environmental planning

Basis for action

12.35.  In a number of developing countries affected by desertification, 
the natural resource base is the main resource upon which the development 
process must rely.  The social systems interacting with land resources make 
the problem much more complex, requiring an integrated approach to the 
planning and management of land resources. Action plans to combat 
desertification and drought should include management aspects of the 
environment and development, thus conforming with the approach of 
integrating national development plans and national environmental action 
plans.



Objectives

12.36.  The objectives of this programme area are:
	(a)	To strengthen national institutional capabilities to develop 
appropriate anti-desertification programmes and to integrate them into 
national development planning;

	(b)	To develop and integrate strategic planning frameworks for the 
development, protection and management of natural resources in dryland 
areas into national development plans, including national plans to combat 
desertification, and environmental action plans in countries most prone to 
desertification;

	(c)	To initiate a long-term process for implementing and monitoring 
strategies related to natural resources management;

	(d)	To strengthen regional and international cooperation for 
combating desertification through, inter alia, the adoption of legal and 
other instruments.


Activities

(a)	Management-related activities

12.37.  Governments at the appropriate level, and with the support of the 
relevant international and regional organizations, should:

	(a)	Establish or strengthen, national and local 
anti-desertification authorities within government and local executive 
bodies, as well as local committees/associations of land users, in all 
rural communities affected, with a view to organizing working cooperation 
between all actors concerned, from the grass-roots level (farmers and 
pastoralists) to the higher levels of government;

	(b)	Develop national plans of action to combat desertification and 
as appropriate, make them integral parts of national development plans and 
national environmental action plans;

	(c)	Implement policies directed towards improving land use, 
managing common lands appropriately, providing incentives to small farmers 
and pastoralists, involving women and encouraging private investment in the 
development of drylands;

	(d)	Ensure coordination among ministries and institutions working 
on anti-desertification programmes at national and local levels.



(b)	Data and information

12.38.  Governments at the appropriate level, and with the support of the 
relevant international and regional organizations, should promote 
information exchange and cooperation with respect to national planning and 
programming among affected countries, inter alia, through networking.

(c)	International and regional cooperation and coordination

12.39.  The relevant international organizations, multilateral financial 
institutions, non-governmental organizations and bilateral agencies should 
strengthen their cooperation in assisting with the preparation of 
desertification control programmes and their integration into national 
planning strategies, with the establishment of national coordinating and 
systematic observation mechanisms and with the regional and global 
networking of these plans and mechanisms.

12.40.  To request the General Assembly at its forty-seventh session to 
establish, under the aegis of the General Assembly, an intergovernmental 
negotiating committee for the elaboration of an international convention to 
combat desertification, in those countries experiencing serious drought 
and/or desertification, particularly in Africa, with a view to finalizing 
such a convention by June 1994.

Means of implementation

(a)	Financing and cost evaluation

12.41.  The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual 
cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be 
about $180 million including about $90 million from the international 
community on grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and order of 
magnitude estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments.  Actual 
costs and financial terms, including any that are non-concessional, will 
depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes Governments 
decide upon for implementation.

(b)	Scientific and technological means

12.42.  Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the 
relevant international and regional organizations, should:

	(a)	Develop and introduce appropriate improved sustainable 
agricultural and pastoral technologies that are socially and 
environmentally acceptable and economically feasible;

	(b)	Undertake applied study on the integration of environmental and 
developmental activities into national development plans.

(c)	Human resource development

12.43.  Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the 
relevant international and regional organizations, should undertake 
nationwide major anti-desertification awareness/training campaigns within 
countries affected through existing national mass media facilities, 
educational networks and newly created or strengthened extension services.  
This should ensure people's access to knowledge of desertification and 
drought and to national plans of action to combat desertification.

(d)	Capacity-building

12.44.  Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the 
relevant international and regional organizations, should establish and 
maintain mechanisms to ensure coordination of sectoral ministries and 
institutions, including local-level institutions and appropriate 
non-governmental organizations, in integrating anti-desertification 
programmes into national development plans and national environmental 
action plans.


		   E.  Developing comprehensive drought preparedness and
		       drought-relief schemes, including self-help
		       arrangements, for drought-prone areas and
		       designing programmes to cope with environmental
		       refugees

Basis for action

12.45.  Drought, in differing degrees of frequency and severity, is a 
recurring phenomenon throughout much of the developing world, especially 
Africa.  Apart from the human toll/- an estimated 3/million people died in 
the mid-1980s because of drought in sub-Saharan Africa/- the economic costs 
of drought-related disasters are also high in terms of lost production, 
misused inputs and diversion of development resources.

12.46.  Early-warning systems to forecast drought will make possible the 
implementation of drought-preparedness schemes.  Integrated packages at the 
farm and watershed level, such as alternative cropping strategies, soil and 
water conservation and promotion of water harvesting techniques, could 
enhance the capacity of land to cope with drought and provide basic 
necessities, thereby minimizing the number of environmental refugees and 
the need for emergency drought relief.  At the same time, contingency 
arrangements for relief are needed for periods of acute scarcity.

Objectives

12.47.  The objectives of this programme area are:

	(a)	To develop national strategies for drought preparedness in both 
the short and long term, aimed at reducing the vulnerability of production 
systems to drought;

	(b)	To strengthen the flow of early-warning information to decision 
makers and land users to enable nations to implement strategies for drought 
intervention;

	(c)	To develop and integrate drought-relief schemes and means of 
coping with environmental refugees into national and regional development 
planning.

Activities

(a)	Management-related activities

12.48.  In drought-prone areas, Governments at the appropriate level, with 
the support of the relevant international and regional organizations, 
should:

	(a)	Design strategies to deal with national food deficiencies in 
periods of production shortfall.  These strategies should deal with issues 
of storage and stocks, imports, port facilities, food storage, transport 
and distribution;

	(b)	Improve national and regional capacity for agrometeorology and 
contingency crop planning.  Agrometeorology links the frequency, content 
and regional coverage of weather forecasts with the requirements of crop 
planning and agricultural extension;

	(c)	Prepare rural projects for providing short-term rural 
employment to drought-affected households.  The loss of income and 
entitlement to food is a common source of distress in times of drought.  
Rural works help to generate the income required to buy food for poor 
households;

	(d)	Establish contingency arrangements, where necessary, for food 
and fodder distribution and water supply;

	(e)	Establish budgetary mechanisms for providing, at short notice, 
resources for drought relief;

	(f)	Establish safety nets for the most vulnerable households.

(b)	Data and information

12.49.  Governments of affected countries, at the appropriate level, with 
the support of the relevant international and regional organizations, 
should:

	(a)	Implement research on seasonal forecasts to improve contingency 
planning and relief operations and allow preventive measures to be taken at 
the farm level, such as the selection of appropriate varieties and farming 
practices, in times of drought;

	(b)	Support applied research on ways of reducing water loss from 
soils, on ways of increasing the water absorption capacities of soils and 
on water harvesting techniques in drought-prone areas;

	(c)	Strengthen national early-warning systems, with particular 
emphasis on the area of risk-mapping, remote-sensing, agrometeorological 
modelling, integrated multidisciplinary crop-forecasting techniques and 
computerized food supply/demand analysis.

(c)	International and regional cooperation and coordination

12.50.  Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the 
relevant international and regional organizations, should:

	(a)	Establish a system of stand-by capacities in terms of 
foodstock, logistical support, personnel and finance for a speedy 
international response to drought-related emergencies;

	(b)	Support programmes of the World Meteorological Organization 
(WMO) on agrohydrology and agrometeorology, the Programme of the Regional 
Training Centre for Agrometeorology and Operational Hydrology and their 
Applications (AGRHYMET), drought-monitoring centres and the African Centre 
of Meteorological Applications for Development (ACMAD), as well as the 
efforts of the Permanent Inter-State Committee on Drought Control in the 
Sahel (CILSS) and the Intergovernmental Authority for Drought and 
Development (IGADD);

	(c)	Support FAO programmes and other programmes for the development 
of national early-warning systems and food security assistance schemes;

	(d)	Strengthen and expand the scope of existing regional programmes 
and the activities of appropriate United Nations organs and organizations, 
such as the World Food Programme (WFP), the Office of the United Nations 
Disaster Relief Coordinator (UNDRO) and the United Nations Sudano-Sahelian 
Office as well as of non-governmental organizations, aimed at mitigating 
the effects of drought and emergencies.


Means of implementation

(a)	Financing and cost evaluation

12.51.  The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual 
cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be 
about $1.2 billion including about $1.1 billion from the international 
community on grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and order of 
magnitude estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments.  Actual 
costs and financial terms, including any that are non-concessional, will 
depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes Governments 
decide upon for implementation.
(b)	Scientific and technological means

12.52.  Governments at the appropriate level and drought-prone communities, 
with the support of the relevant international and regional organizations, 
should:

	(a)	Use traditional mechanisms to cope with hunger as a means of 
channelling relief and development assistance;

	(b)	Strengthen and develop national, regional and local 
interdisciplinary research and training capabilities for drought-prevention 
strategies.

(c)	Human resource development

12.53.  Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the 
relevant international and regional organizations, should:

	(a)	Promote the training of decision makers and land users in the 
effective utilization of information from early-warning systems;

	(b)	Strengthen research and national training capabilities to 
assess the impact of drought and to develop methodologies to forecast 
drought.

(d)	Capacity-building

12.54.  Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the 
relevant international and regional organizations, should:

	(a)	Improve and maintain mechanisms with adequate staff, equipment 
and finances for monitoring drought parameters to take preventive measures 
at regional, national and local levels;

	(b)	Establish interministerial linkages and coordinating units for 
drought monitoring, impact assessment and management of drought-relief 
schemes.


		  F.  Encouraging and promoting popular participation and
		      environmental education, focusing on desertification
			 control and management of the effects of drought

Basis for action

12.55.  The experience to date on the successes and failures of programmes 
and projects points to the need for popular support to sustain activities 
related to desertification and drought control.  But it is necessary to go 
beyond the theoretical ideal of popular participation and to focus on 
obtaining actual active popular involvement, rooted in the concept of 
partnership.  This implies the sharing of responsibilities and the mutual 
involvement of all parties.  In this context, this programme area should be 
considered an essential supporting component of all desertification-control 
and drought-related activities.

Objectives

12.56.  The objectives of this programme area are:

	(a)	To develop and increase public awareness and knowledge 
concerning desertification and drought, including the integration of 
environmental education in the curriculum of primary and secondary schools;

	(b)	To establish and promote true partnership between government 
authorities, at both the national and local levels, other executing 
agencies, non-governmental organizations and land users stricken by drought 
and desertification, giving land users a responsible role in the planning 
and execution processes in order to benefit fully from development 
projects;

	(c)	To ensure that the partners understand one another's needs, 
objectives and points of view by providing a variety of means such as 
training, public awareness and open dialogue;

	(d)	To support local communities in their own efforts in combating 
desertification, and to draw on the knowledge and experience of the 
populations concerned, ensuring the full participation of women and 
indigenous populations.

Activities

(a)	Management-related activities

12.57.  Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the 
relevant international and regional organizations, should:

	(a)	Adopt policies and establish administrative structures for more 
decentralized decision-making and implementation;

	(b)	Establish and utilize mechanisms for the consultation and 
involvement of land users and for enhancing capability at the grass-roots 
level to identify and/or contribute to the identification and planning of 
action;

	(c)	Define specific programme/project objectives in cooperation 
with local communities; design local management plans to include such 
measures of progress, thereby providing a means of altering project design 
or changing management practices, as appropriate;

	(d)	Introduce legislative, institutional/organizational and 
financial measures to secure user involvement and access to land resources;

	(e)	Establish and/or expand favourable conditions for the provision 
of services, such as credit facilities and marketing outlets for rural 
populations;

	(f)	Develop training programmes to increase the level of education 
and participation of people, particularly women and indigenous groups, 
through, inter alia, literacy and the development of technical skills;

	(g)	Create rural banking systems to facilitate access to credit for 
rural populations, particularly women and indigenous groups, and to promote 
rural savings;

	(h)	Adopt appropriate policies to stimulate private and public 
investment.

(b)	Data and information

12.58.  Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the 
relevant international and regional organizations, should:

	(a)	Review, develop and disseminate gender-disaggregated 
information, skills and know-how at all levels on ways of organizing and 
promoting popular participation;

	(b)	Accelerate the development of technological know-how, focusing 
on appropriate and intermediate technology;

	(c)	Disseminate knowledge about applied research results on soil 
and water issues, appropriate species, agricultural techniques and 
technological know-how.

(c)	International and regional cooperation and coordination

12.59.  Governments at the appropriate level, and with the support of the 
relevant international and regional organizations, should:

	(a)	Develop programmes of support to regional organizations such as 
CILSS, IGADD, SADCC and the Arab Maghreb Union and other intergovernmental 
organizations in Africa and other parts of the world, to strengthen 
outreach programmes and increase the participation of non-governmental 
organizations together with rural populations;

	(b)	Develop mechanisms for facilitating cooperation in technology 
and promote such cooperation as an element of all external assistance and 
activities related to technical assistance projects in the public or 
private sector;

	(c)	Promote collaboration among different actors in environment and 
development programmes;
	(d)	Encourage the emergence of representative organizational 
structures to foster and sustain interorganizational cooperation.

Means of implementation

(a)	Financing and cost evaluation

12.60.  The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual 
cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be 
about $1.0 billion including about $500 million from the international 
community on grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and order of 
magnitude estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments.  Actual 
costs and financial terms, including any that are non-concessional, will 
depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes Governments 
decide upon for implementation.

(b)	Scientific and technological means

12.61.  Governments at the appropriate level, and with the support of the 
relevant international and regional organizations, should promote the 
development of indigenous know-how and technology transfer.

(c)	Human resource development

12.62.  Governments, at the appropriate level, and with the support of the 
relevant international and regional organizations, should:

	(a)	Support and/or strengthen institutions involved in public 
education, including the local media, schools and community groups;

	(b)	Increase the level of public education.

(d)	Capacity-building

12.63.  Governments at the appropriate level, and with the support of the 
relevant international and regional organizations, should promote members 
of local rural organizations and train and appoint more extension officers 
working at the local level.

A21: Desertification (Ch. 12), 
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