International Agreements on Employment Contents Commitment 3 from the Copenhagen Declaration on Social Development Commitment 8 from the Copenhagen Declaration on Social Development World Summit on Social Development, Copenhagen 1995 Programme of Action of the World Summit for Social Development Introduction, points 2 &3 Chapter I : An Enabling Environment for Social Development Basis for action and objectives, point 7, Section A, point 9 (a-k), Action 12f Chapter II : Eradication of Poverty Basis for action and objectives, Section 23 and 25, Action A (b), 27(a), 29(a), 34 (a, b, c), Section C (b, c, e) Chapter III : Expansion of Productive Employment and Reduction of Unemployment Basis for action and objectives Action A point 48-50 and 51 (f, h), Action B, point 52 (f, g) Action C, point 54, 56, Action D, point 57-62, Action E, points 64(b, g) and 65 Chapter IV : Social Integration Basis for action and objectives, points 66-70, Action A, point 71 (a-h), Action B, point 73 (a-k), Action C, point 74 (d), Action E, point 77 (c) Chapter V : Implementation and Follow-Up Basis for action and objectives, Action A, points 83 (a, c, f, g, h) Action C, point 91 (c), Action D, point 98 (c) Copenhagen Declaration on Social Development Chapeau, points 2 and 9 Section A: point 14, 16 (h, g), 23 Commitment 1 (f), Commitment 2 (b, c, d), Commitment 3 (a-k), Commitment 5 (j), Commitment 6 (i, u), Commitment 8 (h, p)UN Commission on Social Development 1995 Annex, Section B. Employment, point 26-32 1996 1997 Follow-up to WSSD (a,c) 1998 Follow-up to WSSD (b) Section B. Draft decisions (3a) Section C. Matters brought to the attention to the Council (3, 10, 16) 1997 Section A, Draft resolution II: point 7, 14, 16 Section D. Agreed conclusions I. points 1,2 II. points 3-7 III. points 8-14 IV. points 15-21 (a-e) 1997 summary 1998 Section B. Resolutions and decisions, points 1, 8 Part A, point 26 Part B, points 49, 50, 51, 52, 55,56 Part C, points 70, 71 1998 summary, chapter II, point 5 Copenhagen +5, Geneva 2000: Review of the World Summit for Social Development Chapter 3: Expansion of Productive Employment and Reduction of Unemployment Advance unedited version of the Comprehensive Report on the Implementation of the Outcome of the World Summit for Social Development Report of the Secretary-General PART I: Overview Introduction Section A, points 1, 3, 4, 9, 10, 11, 12, 17, Section B, points 20, 21, 22, 24, 27, 30-38, 51, 57, 67 Section D, points 75, 76, 78, 79, 81, 103, 104, 105, 108, 109 Agenda 21, Rio 1992 Chapter 3. Combating Poverty (Sections 3.3, 3.4, 3.7, 3.10) Chapter 14. Promoting Sustainable Agriculture and Rural Development, point 14.2, 14.24 Chapter 24. Global Action for Women Towards Sustainable and Equitable Development, points 24.1, 24.3 Chapter 25. Children and Youth in Sustainable Development, points A.25.3, 25.6, 25.9b Chapter 29. Strengthening the Role of Workers and Their Trade Unions, points 29.2 & 29.5 Chapter 30. Strengthening the Role of Business and Industry, point 30.1, 30.17 Chapter 36. Promoting Education, Public Awareness and Training, points 36.12, 36.17, 36.18, 36.22 Earth Summit II, 1997 Chapter 3. Implementation of Agenda 21 in Areas Requiring Urgent Action Chapter A. Integration of economic, social and environmental objectives, points 23, 24, 30 Chapter B. Sectors and issues points 43 (re Energy) point 63 (re Land and Sustainable Agriculture) Human Rights Review Follow-up to the World Conference on Human Rights, New York 1998 VI. Equal status and human rights of women, point 41 VIII. Special protection, points 60, 70, 71 3rd World Conference on Women, Nairobi 1985 Summary: Nairobi Forward Looking Strategies for the Advancement of Women Fourth World Conference on Women Platform for Action Chapter 1, Resolution 1, Annex II Section II Global Framework, points 16, 17, 19, 21, 31 IV. Strategic Objectives and Actions A. Women and poverty Section 52, 53, 58(b, h, i , j, k, l) B. Education and Training of Women Points 75, 82, 82(d) C. Women and Health Strategic objective C.2., point 107 (b) Points 151, 152, 153, 155, 157, 158, 160, 160, 162, 163 Strategic objective C.5., point 93 F. Women and the economy Strategic objective F.1, point 165 (c,g,m) Strategic objective F.2, point 166 (a,c,e,f,g,,j) Strategic objective F.3, point 173, 176(e) Strategic objective F.5, point 178 J. Women and the media Strategic objective J.1. point 239 H. Institutional mechanism for the advancement of women Strategic Objective H.2. point 204 (b, c, f), point 205 (c,f,g,h) International Conference on Population and Development (ICPD), Cairo 1994 Programme of Action of the International Conference on Population and Development Chapter 3: Interrelationships between Population, Sustained Economic Growth and Sustainable Development B. Population, sustained economic growth and poverty Section 3.13, 3.15, 3.17, 3.29 Chapter 4 Gender Equality, Equity and Empowerment of Women, Section A: Empowerment of Women, points 4.3 (b), 4..4 (b), 4.21, 4.26, Section B. Programme management and human resource development, points 13.9, 13.19 Chapter 5 : The Family, its Roles, Rights, Composition and Structure Section A, point 5.1, Section B, point 5.7 & 5.10 Chapter 9 Population Distribution, Urbanization and Internal Migration, points 9.4, 9.10, 9.15, 9.22 Chapter 11 : Population, Development and Education, Section A, point 11.4 Chapter 13 : National Action Habitat II Conference, Istanbul 1996 Declaration on Human Settlements, point 4 & 6 Preamble, points 8, 9, 21 Chapter II Goals and Principals, point 28 &29 Chapter IV Global Plan of Action Section B: Adequate Shelter for All, 2. Shelter Policies, points 67 & 69 Section C. Sustainable human settlements development in an urbanizing world C.3. Social development: eradication of poverty, creation of productive employment and social integration Section 115, 116(a), 117(a), 118(a, f, i), 119(f, i), 120(e), 123(c) C 7: Sustainable Transport and Communication Systems, points 147 C 9: Improving urban economics (157,158, 159) Section E. International cooperation and coordination, E 4, Technology transfer and information exchange, points 205 & 206 Section F. Implementation and follow-up of the Habitat Agenda UN Commissions UN Commission on Sustainable Development (CSD) 1995 Chapter I, part 4, point 40; part 6, point 76, 77 Section D, part 2, point 168 1996 Decision 4/1, point 4a 1998 Section B, Decision 6/2 part A, point 2, part B, point 8, 9, 10; part C, point 5; Annex II, point 4, 12; part B, point 14; part C, point 28, 31, 55 1999 Decision 7/3 (3i, 5a); Annex, general considerations, point 3, 10 UN Commission on the Status of Women 1996 (40th Session) Report on the 40th session Agreed conclusions 1996/2 E. Women and global communications - Section D. Adapting the legal system (12c, 12e), - Section E. Adopting and promoting a family support policy and encouraging reconciliation of family and professional life for women and men (14, 15), - Section F Resolution 40/6, points 9 (d,e), - Annex, II Specific Comments, Section F. Women and the Economy, 36 - Chapter II Follow-up Implementation of strategic objectives and actions in the critical areas of concern: Poverty, 62 (4e, 4f. 4g), UN Conventions The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women: CEDAW, article 11 International Bill of Human Rights Universal Declaration of Human Rights Article 23 and 25III, Preamble, part III article 66, 7 (c), 10 Documents Commitment 3 from the Copenhagen Declaration on Social Development 3. Promoting full employment: Commitment 3: Promoting Full Employment We commit ourselves to promoting the goal of full employment as a basic priority of our economic and social policies, and to enabling all men and women to attain secure and sustainable livelihoods through freely chosen productive employment and work. To this end, at the national level, we will: (a) Put the creation of employment, the reduction of unemployment and the promotion of appropriately and adequately remunerated employment at the centre of strategies and policies of Governments, with full respect for workers' rights and with the participation of employers, workers and their respective organizations, giving special attention to the problems of structural, long-term unemployment and underemployment of youth, women, people with disabilities, and all other disadvantaged groups and individuals; (b) Develop policies to expand work opportunities and productivity in both rural and urban sectors by achieving economic growth, investing in human resource development, promoting technologies that generate productive employment, and encouraging self-employment, entrepreneurship, and small and medium-sized enterprises; (c) Improve access to land, credit, information, infrastructure and other productive resources for small and micro-enterprises, including those in the informal sector, with particular emphasis on the disadvantaged sectors of society; (d) Develop policies to ensure that workers and employers have the education, information and training needed to adapt to changing economic conditions, technologies and labour markets; (e) Explore innovative options for employment creation and seek new approaches to generating income and purchasing power; (f) Foster policies that enable people to combine their paid work with their family responsibilities; (g) Pay particular attention to women's access to employment, the protection of their position in the labour market and the promotion of equal treatment of women and men, in particular with respect to pay; (h) Take due account of the importance of the informal sector in our employment development strategies with a view to increasing its contribution to the eradication of poverty and to social integration in developing countries, and to strengthening its linkages with the formal economy; (i) Pursue the goal of ensuring quality jobs, and safeguard the basic rights and interests of workers and to this end, freely promote respect for relevant International Labour Organization conventions, including those on the prohibition of forced and child labour, the freedom of association, the right to organize and bargain collectively, and the principle of non-discrimination. At the international level, we will: (j) Ensure that migrant workers benefit from the protections provided by relevant national and international instruments, take concrete and effective measures against the exploitation of migrant workers, and encourage all countries to consider the ratification and full implementation of the relevant international instruments on migrant workers; (k) Foster international cooperation in macroeconomic policies, liberalization of trade and investment so as to promote sustained economic growth and the creation of employment, and exchange experiences on successful policies and programmes aimed at increasing employment and reducing unemployment. Commitment 8 from the Copenhagen Declaration on Social Development Commitment 8: Structural Adjustment Programmes We commit ourselves to ensuring that when structural adjustment programmes are agreed to they include social development goals, in particular eradicating poverty, promoting full and productive employment, and enhancing social integration. To this end, at the national level, we will: (a) Promote basic social programmes and expenditures, in particular those affecting the poor and the vulnerable segments of society, and protect them from budget reductions, while increasing the quality and effectiveness of social expenditures; (b) Review the impact of structural adjustment programmes on social development, including, where appropriate, by means of gender-sensitive social impact assessments and other relevant methods, in order to develop policies to reduce their negative effects and improve their positive impact; the cooperation of international financial institutions in the review could be requested by interested countries; (c) Promote, in the countries with economies in transition, an integrated approach to the transformation process, addressing the social consequences of reforms and human resource development needs; (d) Reinforce the social development components of all adjustment policies and programmes, including those resulting from the globalization of markets and rapid technological change, by designing policies to promote more equitable and enhanced access to income and resources; (e) Ensure that women do not bear a disproportionate burden of the transitional costs of such processes. At the international level, we will: (f) Work to ensure that multilateral development banks and other donors complement adjustment lending with enhanced targeted social development investment lending; (g) Strive to ensure that structural adjustment programmes respond to the economic and social conditions, concerns and needs of each country; (h) Enlist the support and cooperation of regional and international organizations and the United Nations system, in particular the Bretton Woods institutions, in the design, social management and assessment of structural adjustment policies, and in implementing social development goals and integrating them into their policies, programmes and operations. World Summit on Social Development Copenhagen 1995 Programme of Action of the World Summit for Social Development Chapter I : An Enabling Environment for Social Development Basis for action and objectives 7. The ultimate goal of social development is to improve and enhance the quality of life of all people. It requires democratic institutions, respect for all human rights and fundamental freedoms, increased and equal economic opportunities, the rule of law, the promotion of respect for cultural diversity and the rights of persons belonging to minorities, and an active involvement of civil society. Empowerment and participation are essential for democracy, harmony and social development. All members of society should have the opportunity and be able to exercise the right and responsibility to take an active part in the affairs of the community in which they live. Gender equality and equity and the full participation of women in all economic, social and political activities are essential. The obstacles that have limited the access of women to decision-making, education, health-care services and productive employment must be eliminated and an equitable partnership between men and women established, involving men's full responsibility in family life. It is necessary to change the prevailing social paradigm of gender to usher in a new generation of women and men working together to create a more humane world order. A. A favourable national and international economic environment 9. The promotion of mutually reinforcing, broad-based, sustained economic growth and sustainable development on a global scale, as well as growth in production, a non-discriminatory and multilateral rule-based international trading system, employment and incomes, as a basis for social development, requires the following actions: (a) Promoting the establishment of an open, equitable, cooperative and mutually beneficial international economic environment; (b) Implementing sound and stable macroeconomic and sectoral policies that encourage broad-based, sustained economic growth and development that is sustainable and equitable, that generate jobs, and that are geared towards eradicating poverty and reducing social and economic inequalities and exclusion; (c) Promoting enterprise, productive investment and expanded access to open and dynamic markets in the context of an open, equitable, secure, non-discriminatory, predictable, transparent and multilateral rule-based international trading system, and to technologies for all people, particularly those living in poverty and the disadvantaged, as well as for the least developed countries; (d) Implementing fully and as scheduled the Final Act of the Uruguay Round of multilateral trade negotiations; 1/ (e) Refraining from any unilateral measure not in accordance with international law and the Charter of the United Nations that creates obstacles to trade relations among States, impedes the full realization of social and economic development and hinders the well-being of the population in the affected countries; (f) Increasing food production, through the sustainable development of the agricultural sector and improvement of market opportunities, and improving access to food by low-income people in developing countries, as a means of alleviating poverty, eliminating malnutrition and raising their standards of living; (g) Promoting the coordination of macroeconomic policies at the national, subregional, regional and international levels in order to promote an international financial system that is more conducive to stable and sustained economic growth and sustainable development through, inter alia, a higher degree of stability in financial markets, reducing the risk of financial crisis, improving the stability of exchange rates, stabilizing and striving for low real interest rates in the long run and reducing the uncertainties of financial flows; (h) Establishing, strengthening or rehabilitating, inter alia, through capacity-building where necessary, national and international structures, processes and resources available, to ensure appropriate consideration and coordination of economic policy, with special emphasis on social development; (i) Promoting or strengthening capacity-building in developing countries, particularly in Africa and the least developed countries, to develop social activities; (j) Ensuring that, in accordance with Agenda 21 2/ and the various consensus agreements, conventions and programmes of action adopted within the framework of the follow-up to the outcome of the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, broad-based, sustained economic growth and sustainable development respects the need to protect the environment and the interests of future generations; (k) Ensuring that the special needs and vulnerabilities of small island developing States are adequately addressed in order to enable them to achieve sustained economic growth and sustainable development with equity by implementing the Programme of Action for the Sustainable Development of Small Island Developing States. 3/ Actions 12. Making economic growth and the interaction of market forces more conducive to social development requires the following actions: (f) Adopting and implementing long-term strategies to ensure substantial, well-directed public and private investment in the construction and renewal of basic infrastructure, which will benefit people living in poverty and generate employment; Chapter II : Eradication of Poverty Basis for action and objectives 23. Poverty has various causes, including structural ones. Poverty is a complex multidimensional problem with origins in both the national and international domains. No uniform solution can be found for global application. Rather, country-specific programmes to tackle poverty and international efforts supporting national efforts, as well as the parallel process of creating a supportive international environment, are crucial for a solution to this problem. Poverty is inseparably linked to lack of control over resources, including land, skills, knowledge, capital and social connections. Without those resources, people are easily neglected by policy makers and have limited access to institutions, markets, employment and public services. The eradication of poverty cannot be accomplished through anti-poverty programmes alone but will require democratic participation and changes in economic structures in order to ensure access for all to resources, opportunities and public services, to undertake policies geared to more equitable distribution of wealth and income, to provide social protection for those who cannot support themselves, and to assist people confronted by unforeseen catastrophe, whether individual or collective, natural, social or technological. 25. There is therefore an urgent need for ~ Policies ensuring that all people have adequate economic and social protection during unemployment, ill health, maternity, disability and old age; Actions A. Formulation of integrated strategies (b) Formulating or strengthening, preferably by 1996, and implementing national poverty eradication plans to address the structural causes of poverty, encompassing action on the local, national, subregional, regional and international levels. These plans should establish, within each national context, strategies and affordable time-bound goals and targets for the substantial reduction of overall poverty and the eradication of absolute poverty. In the context of national plans, particular attention should be given to employment creation as a means of eradicating poverty, giving appropriate consideration to health and education, assigning a higher priority to basic social services, generating household income, and promoting access to productive assets and economic opportunities; 27. Governments are urged to integrate goals and targets for combating poverty into overall economic and social policies and planning at the local, national and, where appropriate, regional levels by: (a) Analysing policies and programmes, including those relating to macroeconomic stability, structural adjustment programmes, taxation, investments, employment, markets and all relevant sectors of the economy, with respect to their impact on poverty and inequality, assessing their impact on family well-being and conditions, as well as their gender implications, and adjusting them, as appropriate, to promote a more equitable distribution of productive assets, wealth, opportunities, income and services; 29. There is a need to periodically monitor, assess and share information on the performance of poverty eradication plans, evaluate policies to combat poverty, and promote an understanding and awareness of poverty and its causes and consequences. This could be done, by Governments, inter alia, through: (a) Developing, updating and disseminating specific and agreed gender- disaggregated indicators of poverty and vulnerability, including income, wealth, nutrition, physical and mental health, education, literacy, family conditions, unemployment, social exclusion and isolation, homelessness, landlessness and other factors, as well as indicators of the national and international causes underlying poverty; for this purpose, gathering comprehensive and comparable data, disaggregated by ethnicity, gender, disability, family status, language groupings, regions and economic and social sectors; 34. Urban poverty should further be addressed by: (a) Promoting and strengthening micro-enterprises, new small businesses, cooperative enterprises, and expanded market and other employment opportunities and, where appropriate, facilitating the transition from the informal to the formal sector; (b) Promoting sustainable livelihoods for people living in urban poverty through the provision or expansion of access to training, education and other employment assistance services, in particular for women, youth, the unemployed and the underemployed; (e) Promoting social and other essential services, including, where necessary, assistance for people to move to areas that offer better employment opportunities, housing, education, health and other social services; Section C. Meeting the basic human needs of all (b) Creating public awareness that the satisfaction of basic human needs is an essential element of poverty reduction; these needs are closely interrelated and comprise nutrition, health, water and sanitation, education, employment, housing and participation in cultural and social life; (c) Ensuring that social safety nets associated with economic restructuring are considered as complementary strategies to overall poverty reduction and an increase in productive employment. Short term by nature, safety nets must protect people living in poverty and enable them to find productive employment; (e) In disaster-prone areas and in cooperation with community-based organizations, developing drought and flood mitigation agronomic practices and resource conservation and infrastructure-building programmes, using food-for-work, where appropriate, and incorporating traditional disaster-response practices that can be rapidly expanded into emergency employment and rebuilding programmes in disaster situations; Chapter III : Expansion of Productive Employment and Reduction of Unemployment Basis for action and objectives Actions A. The centrality of employment in policy formulation 48. Placing the expansion of productive employment at the centre of sustainable development strategies and economic and social policies requires: (a) Promoting and pursuing active policies for full, productive, appropriately remunerated and freely chosen employment; (b) Giving priority at the national and international levels to the policies that can address the problems of unemployment and underemployment. 49. Minimizing the negative impact on jobs of measures for macroeconomic stability requires: (a) Pursuing the coordination of macroeconomic policies so that they are mutually reinforcing and conducive to broad-based and sustained economic growth and sustainable development, as well as to substantial increases in productive employment expansion and a decline in unemployment world wide; (b) Giving priority to programmes that most directly promote viable and long-term job growth when budgetary adjustments are required; (c) Removing structural constraints to economic growth and employment creation as a part of stabilization policies; (d) Enabling competing claims on resources to be resolved in a non-inflationary manner through the development and use of sound industrial relations systems; (e) Monitoring, analysing and disseminating information on the impact of trade and investment liberalization on the economy, especially on employment; (f) Exchanging information on different employment promotion measures and their consequences, and monitoring the development of global employment trends; (g) Establishing appropriate social safety mechanisms to minimize the adverse effects of structural adjustment, stabilization or reform programmes on the workforce, especially the vulnerable, and for those who lose their jobs, creating conditions for their re-entry through, inter alia, continuing education and retraining. 50. Promoting patterns of economic growth that maximize employment creation requires: (a) Encouraging, as appropriate, labour-intensive investments in economic and social infrastructure that use local resources and create, maintain and rehabilitate community assets in both rural and urban areas; (b) Promoting technological innovations and industrial policies that have the potential to stimulate short and long-term employment creation, and considering their impact on vulnerable and disadvantaged groups; (c) Giving developing countries the capacity to select specific and suitable technologies; (d) Providing technical assistance and expanded transfer of technology to developing countries to integrate technology and employment policies with other social objectives, and to establish and strengthen national and local technology institutions; (e) Encouraging the realization in the countries with economies in transition of programmes for on-the-job personnel training, facilitating their adaptation to market-oriented reforms and reducing mass unemployment; (f) Promoting mutually supportive improvements in rural farm and non-farm production, including animal husbandry, forestry, fisheries and agro-processing industries, aiming to expand and diversify environmentally sound, sustained economic activity and productive employment in the rural sector; (g) Encouraging community economic development strategies that build on partnerships among Governments and members of civil society to create jobs and address the social circumstances of individuals, families and communities; (h) Introducing sound policies to mobilize savings and stimulate investment in capital-short areas; (i) Maximizing the job creation potential inherent in Agenda 21 through the conservation and management of natural resources, the promotion of alternative livelihoods in fragile ecosystems, and the rehabilitation and regeneration of critically affected and vulnerable land areas and natural resources; (j) Encouraging the utilization of renewable energy, based on local employment-intensive resources, in particular in rural areas. 51. Enhancing opportunities for the creation and growth of private-sector enterprises that would generate additional employment requires: (f) Assisting informal sectors and local enterprises to become more productive and progressively integrated into the formal economy through access to affordable credit, information, wider markets, new technology and appropriate technological and management skills, opportunities to upgrade technical and management skills, and improved premises and other physical infrastructure, as well as by progressively extending labour standards and social protection without destroying the ability of informal sectors to generate employment; (h) Facilitating the expansion of the training and employment-generating opportunities of industries. B. Education, training and labour policies 52. Facilitating people's access to productive employment in today's rapidly changing global environment and developing better quality jobs requires: (f) Encouraging and supporting through technical assistance programmes, including those of the United Nations system, well-designed and adaptable vocational training and apprenticeship programmes to enhance productivity and productive employment; (g) Promoting and strengthening training programmes for the employment of new entrants to the job market and retraining programmes for displaced and retrenched workers; C. Enhanced quality of work and employment 54. Governments should enhance the quality of work and employment by: (a) Observing and fully implementing the human rights obligations that they have assumed; (b) Safeguarding and promoting respect for basic workers' rights, including the prohibition of forced labour and child labour, freedom of association and the right to organize and bargain collectively, equal remuneration for men and women for work of equal value, and non-discrimination in employment, fully implementing the conventions of the International Labour Organization (ILO) in the case of States parties to those conventions, and taking into account the principles embodied in those conventions in the case of those countries that are not States parties to thus achieve truly sustained economic growth and sustainable development; (c) Strongly considering ratification and full implementation of ILO conventions in these areas, as well as those relating to the employment rights of minors, women, youth, persons with disabilities and indigenous people; (d) Using existing international labour standards to guide the formulation of national labour legislation and policies; (e) Promoting the role of ILO, particularly as regards improving the level of employment and the quality of work; (f) Encouraging, where appropriate, employers and workers to consider ways and means for enhancing the sharing of workers in the profits of enterprises and promoting cooperation between workers and employers in the decisions of enterprises. 56. The full participation of women in the labour market and their equal access to employment opportunities require: (a) Establishing the principle of equality between men and women as a basis for employment policy and promoting gender-sensitivity training to eliminate prejudice against the employment of women; (b) Eliminating gender discrimination, including by taking positive action, where appropriate, in hiring, wages, access to credit, benefits, promotion, training, career development, job assignment, working conditions, job security and social security benefits; (c) Improving women's access to technologies that facilitate their occupational and domestic work, encourage self-support, generate income, transform gender-prescribed roles within the productive process and enable them to move out of stereotyped, low-paying jobs; (d) Changing those policies and attitudes that reinforce the division of labour based on gender, and providing institutional support, such as social protection for maternity, parental leave, technologies that facilitate the sharing and reduce the burden of domestic chores, and flexible working arrangements, including parental voluntary part-time employment and work-sharing, as well as accessible and affordable quality child-care facilities, to enable working parents to reconcile work with family responsibilities, paying particular attention to the needs of single-parent households; (e) Encouraging men to take an active part in all areas of family and household responsibilities, including the sharing of child-rearing and housework. D. Enhanced employment opportunities for groups with specific needs 57. The improvement of the design of policies and programmes requires: (a) Identifying and reflecting the specific needs of particular groups, and ensuring that programmes are equitable and non-discriminatory, efficient and effective in meeting the needs of those groups; (b) Actively involving representatives of these groups in planning, design and management, and monitoring, evaluating and reorienting these programmes by providing access to accurate information and sufficient resources to ensure that they reach their intended beneficiaries. 58. Employment policies can better address the problem of short- and long-term unemployment by: (a) Incorporating, with the involvement of the unemployed and/or their associations, a comprehensive set of measures, including employment planning, re-education and training programmes, literacy, skills upgrading, counselling and job-search assistance, temporary work schemes, frequent contact with employment service offices and preparing for entry and re-entry into the labour market; (b) Analysing the underlying causes of long-term unemployment and their effect on different groups, including older workers and single parents, and designing employment and other supporting policies that address specific situations and needs; (c) Promoting social security schemes that reduce barriers and disincentives to employment so as to enable the unemployed to improve their capacity to participate actively in society, to maintain an adequate standard of living and to be able to take advantage of employment opportunities. 59. Programmes for entry or re-entry into the labour market aimed at vulnerable and disadvantaged groups can effectively combat the causes of exclusion on the labour market by: (a) Complementing literacy actions, general education or vocational training by work experience that may include support and instruction on business management and training so as to give better knowledge of the value of entrepreneurship and other private-sector contributions to society; (b) Increasing the level of skills, and also improving the ability to get a job through improvements in housing, health and family life. 60. Policies should seek to guarantee all youth constructive options for their future by: (a) Providing equal access to education at the primary and secondary levels, with literacy as a priority and with special attention to girls; (b) Encouraging the struggle against illiteracy and promoting literacy training in national languages in developing countries, in particular in Africa; (c) Encouraging various actors to join forces in designing and carrying out comprehensive and coordinated programmes that stimulate the resourcefulness of youth, preparing them for durable employment or self-employment, and providing them with guidance, vocational and managerial training, social skills, work experience and education in social values; (d) Ensuring the participation of youth, commensurate with their age and responsibility, in planning and decision-making with regard to their future. 61. The full participation of indigenous people in the labour market and their equal access to employment opportunities requires developing comprehensive employment, education and training programmes that take account of the particular needs of indigenous people. 62. Broadening the range of employment opportunities for persons with disabilities requires: (a) Ensuring that laws and regulations do not discriminate against persons with disabilities; (b) Taking proactive measures, such as organizing support services, devising incentive schemes and supporting self-help schemes and small businesses; (c) Making appropriate adjustments in the workplace to accommodate persons with disabilities, including in that respect the promotion of innovative technologies; (d) Developing alternative forms of employment, such as supported employment, for persons with disabilities who need these services; (e) Promoting public awareness within society regarding the impact of the negative stereotyping of persons with disabilities on their participation in the labour market. E. A broader recognition and understanding of work and employment 64. A broader recognition and understanding of work and employment requires: (b) Developing a more comprehensive knowledge of work and employment through, inter alia, efforts to measure and better understand the type, extent and distribution of unremunerated work, particularly work in caring for dependants and unremunerated work done for family farms or businesses, and encouraging, sharing and disseminating information, studies and experience in this field, including on the development of methods for assessing its value in quantitative terms, for possible reflection in accounts that may be produced separately from, but are consistent with, core national accounts; (g) Intensifying international exchange of experience on various aspects of change in the recognition and understanding of work and employment and on new forms of flexible working time arrangements over the lifetime. 65. The development of additional socially useful new types of employment and work requires, inter alia: (a) Helping vulnerable and disadvantaged groups to integrate better into society and thus participate more effectively in economic and social development; (b) Helping older persons who are dependent or providing support for families in need of educational assistance or social support; (c) Strengthening social ties through these forms of employment and work, which represents an important achievement of social development policy. Chapter IV : Social Integration Basis for action and objectives 66. The aim of social integration is to create "a society for all", in which every individual, each with rights and responsibilities, has an active role to play. Such an inclusive society must be based on respect for all human rights and fundamental freedoms, cultural and religious diversity, social justice and the special needs of vulnerable and disadvantaged groups, democratic participation and the rule of law. The pluralistic nature of most societies has at times resulted in problems for the different groups to achieve and maintain harmony and cooperation, and to have equal access to all resources in society. Full recognition of each individual's rights in the context of the rule of law has not always been fully guaranteed. Since the founding of the United Nations, this quest for humane, stable, safe, tolerant and just societies has shown a mixed record at best. 67. Nevertheless, progress has been noted, as shown in the continuation of the ongoing process of decolonization; the elimination of apartheid; the spread of democracy; wider recognition of the need to respect human dignity, all human rights and fundamental freedoms and cultural diversity; the unacceptability of discrimination; increasing recognition of the unique concerns of indigenous people in the world; an expanded notion of collective responsibility for all members of a society; expanded economic and educational opportunities and the globalization of communication; and greater possibilities for social mobility, choice and autonomy of action. 68. Notwithstanding the instances of progress, there are negative developments that include social polarization and fragmentation; widening disparities and inequalities of income and wealth within and among nations; problems arising from uncontrolled urban development and the degradation of the environment; marginalization of people, families, social groups, communities and even entire countries; and strains on individuals, families, communities and institutions as a result of the rapid pace of social change, economic transformation, migration and major dislocations of population, particularly in the areas of armed conflict. 69. Furthermore, violence, in its many manifestations, including domestic violence, especially against women, children, older persons and people with disabilities, is a growing threat to the security of individuals, families and communities everywhere. Total social breakdown is an all too real contemporary experience. Organized crime, illegal drugs, the illicit arms trade, trafficking in women and children, ethnic and religious conflict, civil war, terrorism, all forms of extremist violence, xenophobia, and politically motivated killing and even genocide present fundamental threats to societies and the global social order. These are compelling and urgent reasons for action by Governments individually and, as appropriate, jointly to foster social cohesion while recognizing, protecting and valuing diversity. 70. There is therefore an urgent need for: þ Transparent and accountable public institutions that are accessible to people on an equal basis and are responsive to their needs; þ Opportunities for all to participate in all spheres of public life; þ Strengthened participation and involvement of civil society in the formulation, implementation and evaluation of decisions determining the functioning and well-being of societies; þ Publicly available objective data to enable people to make informed decisions; þ Maintenance of social stability and promotion of social justice and progress; þ Promotion of non-discrimination, tolerance and mutual respect for and the value of diversity; þ Equity and equality of opportunity and social mobility; þ Gender equality and equity and empowerment of women; þ Elimination of physical and social barriers with the aim of creating a society accessible for all, with special emphasis on measures to meet the needs and interests of those who face obstacles in participating fully in society; þ Giving special attention to the right to the enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health, and to health as a factor of development; þ Promoting the principle of caring for one another's well-being and fostering the spirit of mutual support, within the context of human rights education; þ While acknowledging legitimate national defence needs, recognizing and addressing the dangers to society of armed conflict, and the negative effect of excessive military expenditures, trade in arms, especially of those arms that are particularly injurious or have indiscriminate effects, and excessive investment for arms production and acquisition. Similarly, the need to combat illicit arms trafficking, violence, crime, the production, use and trafficking of illicit drugs, and trafficking in women and children should be recognized and addressed; þ The elimination of all forms of violence and the full implementation of the Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women. 16/ Actions A. Responsive government and full participation in society 71. Governments should promote and protect all human rights and fundamental freedoms, including the right to development, bearing in mind the interdependent and mutually reinforcing relationship between democracy, development and respect for human rights, and should make public institutions more responsive to people's needs by: (a) Ensuring that decisions are based on accurate data and are taken with the participation of those who will be affected, keeping under review, within each country's constitutional framework, the responsibilities of the different levels of government and the administrative arrangements for organizing and delivering services; (b) Keeping under review, within each country's constitutional framework, the national, provincial, municipal and local capacity and capability in raising revenue, and allocating resources to promote local initiatives in maintaining and increasing community cohesion; (c) Simplifying administrative regulations, disseminating information about public policy issues and initiatives for collective interests, and facilitating maximum access to information; (d) Opening channels and promoting full confidence between citizens and government agencies, and developing affordable recourse procedures accessible to all people, especially those who have no access to channels and agencies of communication to seek redress of grievances; (e) Encouraging the production of relevant studies/research to assess the consequences of global and technological changes on social integration and the production of evaluations of the policies and programmes put in place to achieve the various components of social integration; and encouraging national and international exchanges and dissemination of information on innovative models and successful practices; (f) Requiring accountability for the honest, just and equitable delivery of public services to the people from all public officials; (g) Making their services accessible to all citizens and taking special care to ensure that the services are provided to all persons in need; (h) Strengthening popular political participation, and promoting the transparency and accountability of political groupings at the local and national levels; (a) Strengthening the capacities and opportunities for all people, especially those who are vulnerable and disadvantaged, to establish and maintain independent organizations representing their interests, within each country's constitutional framework; 73. Eliminating discrimination and promoting tolerance and mutual respect for and the value of diversity at the national and international levels requires: (a) Enacting and implementing appropriate laws and other regulations to combat racism, racial discrimination, religious intolerance in all its various forms, xenophobia and all forms of discrimination in all walks of life in societies; (b) Encouraging the ratification of the avoidance as far as possible of the resort to reservations, and the implementation of international instruments, including the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination 17/ and the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women; 18/ (c) Taking specific measures, in the context of the implementation of the Nairobi Forward-looking Strategies for the Advancement of Women, 19/ to remove long-standing legal and social barriers to employment, education, productive resources and public services; assist women in becoming aware of and realizing their rights; and ensure the elimination of intra-family discrimination for the girl child, especially in regard to health, nutrition and education; (d) Ensuring gender equality and equity through changes in attitudes, policies and practices, encouraging the full participation and empowerment of women in social, economic and political life, and enhancing gender balance in decision-making processes at all levels; (e) Reviewing with a view to changing legislation, public codes and practices that perpetuate discriminatory practices; (f) Disseminating information in plain language to all groups in society about people's rights and the means available to redress complaints; (g) Strengthening or establishing machinery for monitoring and resolving disputes and conflicts related to discriminatory practices, and developing arbitration and conciliation procedures at the local and national levels; (h) Setting an example through State institutions and the educational system to promote and protect respect for freedom of expression; democracy; political pluralism; diversity of heritage, cultures and values; religious tolerance and principles; and the national traditions on which a country has been built; (i) Recognizing that the languages spoken or used in the world should be respected and protected; (j) Recognizing that it is of utmost importance for all people to live in cooperation and harmony, and ensuring that the traditions and cultural heritage of nations are fully protected; (k) Encouraging independent communication media that promote people's understanding and awareness of all aspects of social integration, with full respect for freedom of information and expression. C. Equality and social justice 74. Governments should promote equality and social justice by: (d) Providing equal opportunities in public-sector employment and providing guidance, information and, as appropriate, incentives to private employers to do the same; E. Responses to specific social needs of refugees, displaced persons and asylum-seekers, documented migrants and undocumented migrants 77. To promote the equitable treatment and integration of documented migrants, particularly documented migrant workers and members of their families: (c) Governments and relevant actors should encourage the international exchange of information on educational and training institutions in order to promote the productive employment of documented migrants through greater recognition of foreign education and credentials; Chapter V : Implementation and Follow-Up Actions A. National strategies, evaluations and reviews 83. The promotion of an integrated approach to the implementation of the Programme of Action at the national level, in accordance with national specificities, requires: (a) Analysing and reviewing macroeconomic, micro-economic and sectoral policies and their impact on poverty, employment, social integration and social development; (c) Assessing the extent, distribution and characteristics of poverty, unemployment, social tensions, and social exclusion, taking measures aiming at eradicating poverty, increasing productive employment and enhancing social integration; (f) Defining time-bound goals and targets for reducing overall poverty and eradicating absolute poverty, expanding employment and reducing unemployment, and enhancing social integration, within each national context; (g) Promoting and strengthening institutional capacity-building for inter-ministerial coordination, intersectoral collaboration, the coordinated allocation of resources and vertical integration from national capitals to local districts; (h) Developing quantitative and qualitative indicators of social development, including, where possible, disaggregation by gender, to assess poverty, employment, social integration and other social factors, to monitor the impact of social policies and programmes, and to find ways to improve the effectiveness of policies and programmes and introduce new programmes; C. Mobilization of financial resources 91. In order to ensure that structural adjustment programmes include social development goals, in particular the eradication of poverty, the generation of productive employment and the enhancement of social integration, Governments, in cooperation with the international financial institutions and other international organizations, should: (c) Further promote policies enabling small enterprises, cooperatives and other forms of micro-enterprises to develop their capacities for income generation and employment creation. D. The role of the United Nations system 98. The implementation of the Copenhagen Declaration and the Programme of Action of the Summit will involve many entities of the United Nations system. In order to ensure coherence in this effort, the General Assembly should give consideration to: (c) Requesting the International Labour Organization, which because of its mandate, tripartite structures and expertise has a special role to play in the field of employment and social development, to contribute to the implementation of the Programme of Action; Copenhagen Declaration Chapeau point 2. We acknowledge that the people of the world have shown in different ways an urgent need to address profound social problems, especially poverty, unemployment and social exclusion, that affect every country. It is our task to address both their underlying and structural causes and their distressing consequences in order to reduce uncertainty and insecurity in the life of people. 9. We gather here to commit ourselves, our Governments and our nations to enhancing social development throughout the world so that all men and women, especially those living in poverty, may exercise the rights, utilize the resources and share the responsibilities that enable them to lead satisfying lives and to contribute to the well-being of their families, their communities and humankind. To support and promote these efforts must be the overriding goals of the international community, especially with respect to people suffering from poverty, unemployment and social exclusion. Section A. Current social situation and reasons for convening the Summit 14. Globalization, which is a consequence of increased human mobility, enhanced communications, greatly increased trade and capital flows, and technological developments, opens new opportunities for sustained economic growth and development of the world economy, particularly in developing countries. Globalization also permits countries to share experiences and to learn from one another's achievements and difficulties, and promotes a cross-fertilization of ideals, cultural values and aspirations. At the same time, the rapid processes of change and adjustment have been accompanied by intensified poverty, unemployment and social disintegration. Threats to human well-being, such as environmental risks, have also been globalized. Furthermore, the global transformations of the world economy are profoundly changing the parameters of social development in all countries. The challenge is how to manage these processes and threats so as to enhance their benefits and mitigate their negative effects upon people. 16. Yet we recognize that far too many people, particularly women and children, are vulnerable to stress and deprivation. Poverty, unemployment and social disintegration too often result in isolation, marginalization and violence. The insecurity that many people, in particular vulnerable people, face about the future - their own and their children's - is intensifying: (g) More women than men live in absolute poverty and the imbalance continues to grow, with serious consequences for women and their children. Women carry a disproportionate share of the problems of coping with poverty, social disintegration, unemployment, environmental degradation and the effects of war; (h) One of the world's largest minorities, more than 1 in 10, are people with disabilities, who are too often forced into poverty, unemployment and social isolation. In addition, in all countries older persons may be particularly vulnerable to social exclusion, poverty and marginalization; Commitment 1 We commit ourselves to creating an economic, political, social, cultural and legal environment that will enable people to achieve social development. To this end, at the national level, we will: (f) Reaffirm, promote and strive to ensure the realization of the rights set out in relevant international instruments and declarations, such as the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 6/ the Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights 7/ and the Declaration on the Right to Development, 8/ including those relating to education, food, shelter, employment, health and information, particularly in order to assist people living in poverty; Commitment 2 We commit ourselves to the goal of eradicating poverty in the world, through decisive national actions and international cooperation, as an ethical, social, political and economic imperative of humankind. To this end, at the national level, in partnership with all actors of civil society and in the context of a multidimensional and integrated approach, we will: (b) Focus our efforts and policies to address the root causes of poverty and to provide for the basic needs of all. These efforts should include the elimination of hunger and malnutrition; the provision of food security, education, employment and livelihood, primary health-care services including reproductive health care, safe drinking water and sanitation, and adequate shelter; and participation in social and cultural life. Special priority will be given to the needs and rights of women and children, who often bear the greatest burden of poverty, and to the needs of vulnerable and disadvantaged groups and persons; (c) Ensure that people living in poverty have access to productive resources, including credit, land, education and training, technology, knowledge and information, as well as to public services, and participate in decision-making on a policy and regulatory environment that would enable them to benefit from expanding employment and economic opportunities; (d) Develop and implement policies to ensure that all people have adequate economic and social protection during unemployment, ill health, maternity, child-rearing, widowhood, disability and old age; Commitment 3 We commit ourselves to promoting the goal of full employment as a basic priority of our economic and social policies, and to enabling all men and women to attain secure and sustainable livelihoods through freely chosen productive employment and work. To this end, at the national level, we will: (a) Put the creation of employment, the reduction of unemployment and the promotion of appropriately and adequately remunerated employment at the centre of strategies and policies of Governments, with full respect for workers' rights and with the participation of employers, workers and their respective organizations, giving special attention to the problems of structural, long-term unemployment and underemployment of youth, women, people with disabilities, and all other disadvantaged groups and individuals; (b) Develop policies to expand work opportunities and productivity in both rural and urban sectors by achieving economic growth, investing in human resource development, promoting technologies that generate productive employment, and encouraging self-employment, entrepreneurship, and small and medium-sized enterprises; (c) Improve access to land, credit, information, infrastructure and other productive resources for small and micro-enterprises, including those in the informal sector, with particular emphasis on the disadvantaged sectors of society; (d) Develop policies to ensure that workers and employers have the education, information and training needed to adapt to changing economic conditions, technologies and labour markets; (e) Explore innovative options for employment creation and seek new approaches to generating income and purchasing power; (f) Foster policies that enable people to combine their paid work with their family responsibilities; (g) Pay particular attention to women's access to employment, the protection of their position in the labour market and the promotion of equal treatment of women and men, in particular with respect to pay; (h) Take due account of the importance of the informal sector in our employment development strategies with a view to increasing its contribution to the eradication of poverty and to social integration in developing countries, and to strengthening its linkages with the formal economy; (i) Pursue the goal of ensuring quality jobs, and safeguard the basic rights and interests of workers and to this end, freely promote respect for relevant International Labour Organization conventions, including those on the prohibition of forced and child labour, the freedom of association, the right to organize and bargain collectively, and the principle of non-discrimination. At the international level, we will: (j) Ensure that migrant workers benefit from the protections provided by relevant national and international instruments, take concrete and effective measures against the exploitation of migrant workers, and encourage all countries to consider the ratification and full implementation of the relevant international instruments on migrant workers; (k) Foster international cooperation in macroeconomic policies, liberalization of trade and investment so as to promote sustained economic growth and the creation of employment, and exchange experiences on successful policies and programmes aimed at increasing employment and reducing unemployment. Commitment 5 We commit ourselves to promoting full respect for human dignity and to achieving equality and equity between women and men, and to recognizing and enhancing the participation and leadership roles of women in political, civil, economic, social and cultural life and in development. To this end, at the national level, we will: (j) Formulate or strengthen policies and practices to ensure that women are enabled to participate fully in paid work and in employment through such measures as positive action, education, training, appropriate protection under labour legislation, and facilitating the provision of quality child care and other support services. Commitment 6 We commit ourselves to promoting and attaining the goals of universal and equitable access to quality education, the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health, and the access of all to primary health care, making particular efforts to rectify inequalities relating to social conditions and without distinction as to race, national origin, gender, age or disability; respecting and promoting our common and particular cultures; striving to strengthen the role of culture in development; preserving the essential bases of people-centred sustainable development; and contributing to the full development of human resources and to social development. The purpose of these activities is to eradicate poverty, promote full and productive employment and foster social integration. To this end, at the national level, we will: (i) Strengthen the links between labour market and education policies, realizing that education and vocational training are vital elements in job creation and in combating unemployment and social exclusion in our societies, and emphasize the role of higher education and scientific research in all plans of social development; (u) Request the specialized agencies, notably the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization and the World Health Organization, as well as other international organizations dedicated to the promotion of education, culture and health, to give greater emphasis to the overriding goals of eradicating poverty, promoting full and productive employment and fostering social integration; Commitment 8 We commit ourselves to ensuring that when structural adjustment programmes are agreed to they include social development goals, in particular eradicating poverty, promoting full and productive employment, and enhancing social integration. To this end, at the national level, we will: (h) Enlist the support and cooperation of regional and international organizations and the United Nations system, in particular the Bretton Woods institutions, in the design, social management and assessment of structural adjustment policies, and in implementing social development goals and integrating them into their policies, programmes and operations. UN Commissions Commission on Social Development 1995 The Commission for Social Development 34th Session took place 10-20 April 1995. The following report has been adopted by the Economic and Social Council in 1995. Annex: Draft world programme of action for youth to the year 2000 and beyond 26. Unemployment and underemployment among youth is a problem everywhere. It is, indeed, part of the larger struggle to create employment opportunities for all citizens. The problem has worsened in recent years because of the global recession, which has affected developing countries the most. The disturbing fact is that economic growth is not always accompanied by growth in employment. The difficulty of finding suitable employment is compounded by a host of other problems confronting young people, including illiteracy and insufficient training, and is worsened by periods of world economic slow-down and overall changing economic trends. In some countries, the influx of young people into the employment market has carried acute problems. According to estimates of the International Labour Organization (ILO), more than 100 million new jobs would have to be created within the next 20 years in order to provide suitable employment for the growing number of young people in the economically active populations of developing countries. The situation of girls and young women, as well as of young people with disabilities, refugee youth, displaced persons, street children, indigenous youth, migrant youth and minorities warrants urgent attention, bearing in mind the prohibition of forced labour and child labour. (ADOPTED AS AMENDED) 27. The crisis of youth unemployment is also a crisis of opportunities for young people to acquire independently the minimum means of accommodation and housing necessary for setting up families and participate in the life of society. Advances in technology and communications, coupled with improved productivity, have imposed new challenges as well as new opportunities for employment. Young people are among the most severely affected by these developments. If effective solutions are not found, the costs to society will be much higher in the long run. Unemployment creates a wide range of social ills and young people are particularly susceptible to its damaging effects: the lack of skill development, low self-esteem, marginalization, impoverishment and the wasting of an enormous human resource. (ADOPTED AS AMENDED) Proposals for action 1. Opportunities for self-employment 28. Governments and organizations should create or promote grant schemes to provide seed money to encourage and support enterprise and employment programmes for young people. Businesses and enterprises could be encouraged to provide counterpart financial and technical support for such schemes. Cooperative schemes involving young people in production and marketing of goods and services could be considered. Formation of youth development banks could be considered. The Committee for the Promotion and Advancement of Cooperatives is encouraged to develop models for cooperatives run by youth in developed and developing countries. Such models could include guidelines for management training and training in entrepreneurial techniques and marketing. (ADOPTED AS AMENDED) 2. Employment opportunities for specific groups of the youth population 29. Within funds designated to promote youth employment, Governments should, as appropriate, designate resources for programmes supporting the efforts of young women, young people with disabilities, youth returning from military service, migrant youth, refugee youth, displaced persons, street children and indigenous youth. Youth organizations and youth themselves should be directly involved in the planning and implementation of these programmes. (ADOPTED AS AMENDED) 3. Voluntary community services involving youth 30. Where they do not yet already exist, Governments should consider the establishment of youth voluntary service programmes. Such programmes could provide alternatives to military service, or might constitute a required element in educational curricula, depending on national policies and priorities. Youth camps, community service projects, environmental protection and intergenerational cooperation programmes should be included among the opportunities offered. Youth organizations should be directly involved in designing, planning, implementing and evaluating such voluntary service programmes. In addition, international cooperation programmes organized between youth organizations in developed and developing countries should be included to promote intercultural understanding and development training. (ADOPTED AS AMENDED) 4. Needs created by technological changes 31. Governments, in particular those of developed countries, should encourage the creation of employment opportunities for young people in fields that are rapidly evolving as a result of technological innovation. A subset of the employment data compiled by Governments should track the employment of youth into those fields marked by newly emerging technologies. Measures should be taken to provide ongoing training in this area for youth. (ADOPTED AS AMENDED) 32. Special attention should be paid to developing and disseminating approaches that promote flexibility in training systems and collaboration between training institutions and employers, especially for young people in high-technology industries. (ADOPTED WITHOUT AMENDMENTS) Commission on Social Development 1996 The Commission for Social Development special session took place 21-31 May, 1996. The following report was adopted by the Economic and Social Council. Chapter I. Matters calling for action by the Economic and Social Council or brought to its attention A. Draft resolution 1997: Follow-up to the World Summit for Social Development Theme: "Productive employment and sustainable livelihoods". Under this theme, the following specific topics will be considered: (a) The centrality of employment in policy formulation, including a broader recognition of work and employment; (c) Enhanced quality of work and employment; 1998: Follow-up to the World Summit for Social Development Theme: "Promoting social integration and participation of all people, including disadvantaged and vulnerable groups and persons". Under this theme, the following specific topics will be considered: (b) Enhancing social protection, reducing vulnerability and enhancing employment opportunities for groups with specific needs; B. Draft decisions PROVISIONAL AGENDA AND DOCUMENTATION FOR THE THIRTY-FIFTH SESSION OF THE COMMISSION FOR SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT 3. Follow-up to the World Summit for Social Development: The Commission will review progress made in the implementation and follow-up to the Copenhagen Declaration on Social Development and the Programme of Action of the World Summit for Social Development and consider at each of its sessions issues relating to the enabling environment for social development, the special situation of Africa and the least developed countries, enhancement of social development goals in structural adjustment programmes, the mobilization of domestic and international resources for social development, and the framework for international, regional and subregional cooperation for social development. (a) Priority theme: Productive employment and sustainable livelihoods The Commission will consider the following specific topics: (i) the centrality of employment in policy formulation, including a broader recognition of work and employment; (ii) improving access to productive resources and infrastructure; and (iii) enhanced quality of work and employment. The Commission will consider the specific topics also from a gender perspective. C. Matters brought to the attention of the Council 3. The following resolution adopted by the Commission is brought to the attention of the Council: Recognizing the linkages between poverty, social exclusion and employment policies and the need for new approaches to social safety nets, human resource development strategies and the concept of employment, 10. Reaffirms that human resources development is an essential part of poverty reduction strategies, which should also be based on strengthening the productive capacities of people living in poverty, inter alia, through the promotion of job training and job-creating activities and wider access to productive resources, as well as through programmes and policies directed towards the simulation of productive employment, labour-intensive development and improvements in productivity; 16. Reaffirms that the satisfaction of basic human needs is an essential element of poverty reduction, these needs being closely interrelated and comprising nutrition, health, water and sanitation, education, employment, housing, and participation in cultural and social life; Commission on Social Development 1997 AGREED CONCLUSIONS ON PRODUCTIVE EMPLOYMENT AND SUSTAINABLE LIVELIHOODS I. UNEMPLOYMENT AND UNDEREMPLOYMENT 1. Over 120 million people worldwide are officially unemployed and many more underemployed, causing massive personal suffering, widespread social disintegration and huge economic waste. In many developing countries, unemployment remains a major unresolved problem and there has been a rise in underemployment, with a majority of the labour force remaining in low- productivity work that offers no escape from poverty. In a majority of industrialized countries, unemployment has persisted for over two decades while most transition economies have experienced a rapid rise in unemployment since 1990. These existing levels of unemployment and underemployment inflict a high human cost on society in general and the unemployed in particular, in terms of increased poverty, marginalization, exclusion, inequalities, reduced well-being and loss of dignity. 2. The Commission urges all countries to strengthen and sustain their efforts towards implementation of the commitments made in the Copenhagen Declaration and the Programme of Action of the World Summit for Social Development, especially in the context of chapter III on expansion of productive employment and reduction of unemployment. The Commission restates its strong commitment to the goals and programmes so effectively and authoritatively articulated at the Summit. II. THE GOAL OF FULL EMPLOYMENT 3. Against this background it is imperative for all countries and the international community to reinstate the attainment of full, productive, appropriately and adequately remunerated, and freely chosen employment as a central objective of economic and social policies. Such a commitment is an essential first step towards reversing the serious unemployment and underemployment situations that exist in most parts of the world. A better understanding of how policy actions impact on employment trends will help take this commitment forward. Defining time-bound goals and targets for reducing overall poverty and eradicating absolute poverty, expanding employment and reducing unemployment, and enhancing social integration, within each national context, would give a strong signal of the increased priority to be accorded to the objective of full employment. With sufficient political will and the coordinated implementation of a comprehensive set of policies, as well as international cooperation in creating an enabling environment, full employment remains an attainable goal. In this context, it is important that broad and comprehensive policies include targeted measures to eradicate poverty and address social and economic inequalities and exclusion. 4. Pursuit of full employment shall be guided by the objective of ensuring the well-being, equality, dignity and worth of the human person and the full enjoyment of all human rights and fundamental freedoms. In this context, it is important that Governments mainstream a gender perspective in all policies and programmes related to employment. 5. Central importance should be assigned to employment in the formulation and implementation of economic and social policies, with the understanding that the public sector, private sector, cooperatives and civil society have a shared interest in and responsibility for employment, and that the achievement of full employment should be a permanent goal for all of them. 6. The involvement of communities and all actors of civil society for full participation and maximum self-reliance should also draw on the resources, strengths and networks that exist at grass-roots levels. 7. It is acknowledged that in economies in transition, employment markets are characterized by indications of high non-registered components of working activities, including both employment and unemployment. The promotion of full employment in these countries in order to enable people to support themselves should be considered a basic priority in social and economic strategies, alongside the control of inflation and budget deficits. III. EMPLOYMENT STRATEGY: NATIONAL AND GLOBAL 8. Open markets and the free flow of goods and services and investment among the countries of the world contribute significantly to achieving the goal of full employment. To this end it is important to sustain progress towards a more open, stable, equitable and rule-based world economy. Pursuit of growth-oriented policies is equally important for achieving the goal of full employment in each country. Strengthened international cooperation constitutes an important factor in ensuring a stable environment for the growth of the world economy. States are called upon to refrain from any unilateral measure not in accordance with international law and the Charter of the United Nations that creates obstacles to trade relations among States, impedes the full realization of social and economic development and hinders the well-being of the population of the countries affected. It will also be important to make further progress towards effective, equitable, development- oriented and durable solutions to the external debt and debt-servicing problems of developing countries, particularly the poorest and heavily indebted countries. 9. Strengthened international cooperation and the application of appropriate national policy will also contribute to ensuring a stable environment conducive to promoting social development, including reduction of unemployment and generation of productive employment in developing countries, in particular those in Africa and the least developed countries. Particular consideration should also be given to the specific needs of small island and land-locked developing countries. 10. The social dimensions of international economic policies should receive greater attention and, to this end, cooperation between the United Nations, the International Labour Organization (ILO) and the Bretton Woods institutions should be enhanced. In this context, the recommendation of the World Summit for Social Development for joint meetings of the Secretary-General and the heads of the International Monetary Fund, the World Bank, ILO and other relevant United Nations agencies should be implemented. It is also important to continue to enhance the interaction between the Economic and Social Council and the Bretton Woods institutions, in particular through the high-level segment of the Council. In addition, the promotion of productive employment with fair wages and working conditions should be recognized as an important objective of development cooperation policies. To this effect, the United Nations, in cooperation with the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund and other multilateral institutions should enhance the positive and address the negative impacts of structural adjustment programmes on economic and social development and assist adjusting countries in creating conditions for economic growth, employment opportunities, poverty eradication and social development while protecting basic social programmes and expenditures from budget reductions. A strong social component should be incorporated into economic reform programmes in order to enhance the positive effects and minimize the negative effects of globalization. 11. At the national level, sound fiscal and monetary policies that foster broadly based long-term growth should be strengthened and promoted. Transparent and accountable governance, an open and stable political, economic and social environment, peace and security, and respect for all human rights are essential for social development and full employment. In addition, Governments, together with workers and employers, must provide an enabling environment that nurtures the creation of highly productive new enterprises, encourages other forms of productive work and employment, and generates sustainable growth and social development. 12. Policies to promote growth and employment should be based on an appropriate mix of sound policies. This could include restructuring public expenditure, strengthening the social protection system to make it more employment-friendly, enhancing investment in human resources and encouraging voluntary worker mobility and more active labour market policies. 13. It should also be recognized that economic and social policies are mutually reinforcing and that social policy is a productive factor that has an important impact on social cohesion and sustainable development. Of particular importance are policies that place the creation of employment at the centre of national strategies, through expanding work opportunities and increasing productivity in both rural and urban sectors, through upgrading skills to provide security in the context of changing patterns of work, and through raising the motivation of workers by, inter alia, fostering participatory relations at the workplace. The environmental perspective should also be integrated into employment policies by promoting and taking into account sustainable utilization of environmental resources and fully exploiting the potential for growth and employment creation in activities that prevent, repair or limit environmental damage. 14. Governments should utilize and develop fully the potential and contribution of cooperatives for the attainment of social development goals, in particular the generation of productive employment. IV. POVERTY ERADICATION, EQUALITY AND SOCIAL JUSTICE 15. Higher rates of growth of productive employment are essential for meeting peoples' aspirations for participation in economic and social life, for eradicating poverty and ensuring equity, and for preserving social cohesion. A high rate of employment generation facilitates the task of ensuring that all workers - men and women, young and old, minorities and persons with disabilities - have the opportunity to be productive participants in the workforce. But the goal must not only be the creation of more jobs; there must be simultaneous concern with improving the quality of employment and working conditions. Governments should enhance the quality of work and employment and safeguard and promote respect for basic worker's rights, including the prohibition of forced labour and child labour, freedom of association and the right to organize and bargain collectively, equal remuneration for men and women for work of equal value, and non-discrimination in employment, fully implementing the conventions of ILO in the case of States parties to those conventions, and taking into account the principles embodied in those conventions in the case of States not parties to the conventions. These basic worker rights must and can be protected for all individuals in all countries. There should be strong support for ILO to promote the ratification and implementation of relevant conventions. 16. In addition to improving the quality of employment, public policy should also emphasize strengthening the capacity of people living in poverty and other disadvantaged and marginalized groups to benefit from economic growth and new employment opportunities. In developing countries this implies special attention to the rural and urban informal sectors where the poor are concentrated. Small and marginal farmers, especially those in ecologically fragile and remote areas, are handicapped in their access to productive resources and cannot benefit fully from new economic opportunities. They require increased State support to improve their access to credit, fertile land, productive inputs and extension services. This needs to be supplemented by investments in rural infrastructure, measures to improve access of the rural population to basic social services and the implementation of targeted measures to develop sustainable livelihoods. 17. Similarly, a majority of the urban labour force in many developing countries continue to depend for survival on low-productivity activities in both the formal and informal sectors. The dependence on such activities has grown in countries where employment in the modern sector has either stagnated or declined. Therefore acceleration of industrialization in these developing countries is crucial for economic growth, employment and enhancing their competitive capacity in this age of globalization and liberalization. It is thus important to adopt policies and programmes to raise productivity and earnings in informal sector activities and improve working conditions. This should include action to remove unnecessary regulatory obstacles to the formation and operation of micro and small enterprises, to improve the access of such enterprises to credit and other enterprise development programmes, and to provide sites endowed with basic infrastructure to enable such enterprises to operate. In particular, innovative alternatives to formal credit systems, such as group-based micro-credit schemes, need to be actively promoted. 18. There is a need for a coherent set of legislative measures with programmes to strengthen the small business sector through the development of appropriate legal, management and financial structures and enable the sector to develop in a sustained and organized way, and to initiate and strengthen financing mechanisms that enhance small business sector access to financial services and reduce the cost of providing and acquiring these services. 19. Apart from the problems relating to the rural and informal sectors in developing countries, an important aspect of policy that should be emphasized in all countries is the need to provide adequate safety nets for those adversely affected by economic change and to facilitate their redeployment into new activities. The need for such policies is increasing in today's rapidly changing global economy. Freer flows of trade and investment, together with rapid technological change, increase the pressures to adjust structures of production and to reform economic policies and institutions. The impact of these pressures has been seen in reduced employment prospects for low-skilled workers in the industrialized countries, in the sharp rise in unemployment and inequality in the transition economies, and in the social costs of structural adjustment and economic reform in developing countries. A key requirement for coping with these problems is the enhancement of the "employability" of all workers. This involves measures to ensure that workers have the skills and abilities they need to move efficiently from job to job and that they continually maintain and upgrade those skills and abilities. 20. Another crucial dimension is equal opportunity for men and women. A gender perspective should permeate all policies and programmes aimed at employment creation, including attention to paid and unpaid work. This is particularly important at the stage of policy formulation, where the potential impact of proposed policies on gender equality should be analysed. Gender impact analyses should also be a regular feature in all stages of policy- making. Employment policies should also contain positive actions to ensure equal opportunities for women. In this connection all countries should fully implement the commitments assumed in Beijing and their obligations under the Convention on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women and other international human rights instruments to which they are parties concerning women's economic rights and independence, including access to employment and resources and appropriate working conditions. 21. The Commission therefore recommends that: (a) A gender perspective should be mainstreamed throughout all policies and programmes aimed at employment creation, so that, before decisions are taken, an analysis is made of their effects on men and women, respectively. Gender-sensitive employment policies should not only contain special policies to enhance the labour market prospects for women, but also include gender- impact analysis as a regular feature in all stages of the overall policy- making process; (b) Governments should actively combat gender discrimination in the labour market. Flexible working time arrangements and social support mechanisms, such as child care, should be provided to allow men and women to harmonize work and family responsibilities. Occupational segregation should be eliminated, inter alia, by ensuring that girls complete their education and by encouraging both boys and girls to make non-traditional career choices. Steps should also be taken to ensure that the high representation of women in part-time employment, or another factor, does not exclude them from training. Women's active participation in political decision-making, as well as in the structures of economic decision-making, and in workers' and employers' organizations should be strengthened; (c) Governments should allocate resources to improve women's access to credit and technology so as to facilitate self-employment and the setting-up of small enterprises - a type of measure that has been successful in many countries; (d) Governments should undertake legislative and administrative reforms to give women equal rights with men to economic resources, including access to ownership and control over land and other forms of property, credit, inheritance, natural resources and appropriate new technology; (e) The importance and relevance of micro-credit programmes for poverty eradication, creation of productive employment and sustainable livelihoods for people living in poverty is recognized. Micro-credit programmes should therefore be promoted actively at both the national and global levels, with the active cooperation of the international organizations concerned. Commission on Social Development 1997 SUMMARY At its thirty-fifth session, the Commission for Social Development considered two main topics under its restructured agenda and multi-year programme of work, namely the priority theme "Productive employment and sustainable livelihoods"; and review of relevant United Nations plans and programmes of action pertaining to the situation of social groups. On the question of productive employment and sustainable livelihoods, the Commission adopted a resolution in which it took note of the report of the Secretary-General prepared in cooperation with the International Labour Organization and decided to adopt agreed conclusions and transmit them to the Economic and Social Council as a contribution to the high-level segment of its substantive session of 1997 (resolution 35/2). Key points from the agreed conclusions include the importance of: - Full, productive, appropriately and adequately remunerated and freely chosen employment as a central objective of economic and social policies; - Setting time-bound goals and targets for expanding employment and reducing unemployment; - Increasing productivity in rural and urban informal sectors through improving access to credit, fertile land, productive inputs, infrastructure, basic social services, information and extension services; - Balanced macroeconomic policies to ensure employment growth, price stability and low interest rates; - Maximizing the quality and accessibility of such social services as education and health both to improve well-being and to increase employment; - Promoting consensual, equitable approaches to income determination through a prices and incomes policy as a means of moderating unemployment, inflation and industrial conflict; - Promoting life-long learning, beginning with basic education and continuing with opportunities for further education, training and skills development; - Encouraging flexible working time arrangements such as job sharing and part-time work in order to promote equitable access to work; Commision on Social Development 1998 B. Resolution and decisions brought to the attention of the Council [ AGREED CONCLUSIONS ON PROMOTING SOCIAL INTEGRATION AND PARTICIPATION OF ALL PEOPLE, INCLUDING DISADVANTAGED AND VULNERABLE GROUPS AND PERSONS 1. Social integration is best promoted in close harmony with efforts to expand productive employment and eradicate poverty, given their mutually reinforcing interrelationships. 8. To ensure that growth-oriented macroeconomic policies build societies that are more inclusive, attention must be given to mainstreaming social development, including maximizing the growth of productive employment and promoting social integration. A. Promoting social integration through responsive government, full participation in society, non-discrimination, tolerance, equality and social justice 26. Participation in productive work, in other economic activities and in economic decision-making through different forms of association, including trade unions and stake ownership, is essential to social integration and well-being. Important steps to be taken in this regard include establishing and expanding small and medium-sized enterprises, expanding the employment potential of the informal sector and enhancing its productivity and increasing the extent of ownership of shares. 27. Governments should enhance the quality of work and employment by safeguarding and promoting respect for basic workers' rights, including the prohibition of forced labour and child labour, freedom of association and the right to organize and bargain collectively, equal remuneration for men and women for work of equal value, and non-discrimination in employment, fully implementing the conventions of ILO in the case of States parties to those conventions, and taking into account the principles embodied in those conventions in the case of those countries that are not States parties, to thus achieve truly sustained economic growth and sustainable development. B. Enhancing social protection, reducing vulnerability and enhancing employment opportunities for groups with specific needs 49. Expansion of productive employment is an essential means to eradicate poverty which is one of the major causes of social exclusion in all countries. Strategies should be developed, taking into account the special needs and skills of various groups, to expand opportunities for productive employment and small income-generating schemes. 50. The effectiveness and relevance of microcredit programmes as a viable tool for poverty eradication, generation of productive employment and sustainable livelihoods and empowerment of women and other marginalized groups are well recognized. Microcredit programmes should therefore be promoted actively at the national level for the empowerment of the poor and marginalized groups and for their integration in the mainstream economic and political process of society. In this context, the support of the international community is essential. 51. Governments should take measures, in collaboration, when appropriate, with employers and trade unions, to eliminate discrimination in employment against vulnerable, disadvantaged and marginalized groups and persons. Policies must address the special needs of groups that are the most vulnerable in the labour market, and promote opportunities to develop and gain new skills. Labour policies need to be particularly sensitive to their needs, including provision for equal remuneration, flexible working hours, adequate protection of part-time workers and access to information and training, and involvement in trade unions. 52. In countries where unemployment among young people is high, redoubled efforts are required to expand meaningful employment opportunities for them. 55. In countries where the informal sector in the economy is important, measures that promote an environment conducive for its appropriate development are critical. The establishment of self-generating employment, self-help schemes and productive and sustainable livelihoods, and the development of cooperatives and small-sized enterprises and access to microcredit, particularly to improve access of the vulnerable, disadvantaged and marginalized groups in order to make them more self-sufficient, should be encouraged and promoted. 56. The elimination of child labour should be achieved as part of a larger programme in which society provides alternative assistance or economic opportunity; ILO, in close cooperation with the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) and other United Nations organizations, supports national efforts to eliminate child labour. Continued financial support from the donor community for the ILO International Programme on the Elimination of Child Labour (IPEC) is particularly important; ILO should pursue its normative work on child labour by promoting the ratification and implementation of its Convention No. 138 concerning Minimum Age for Admission to Employment (Minimum Age Convention, 1973); 4/ Governments should support ILO work on the drafting of a new ILO convention on the elimination of the most intolerable forms of child labour. C. Violence, crime and the problems of illicit drugs and substance abuse as factors of social disintegration 70. That the developing countries especially face a serious challenge, inasmuch as they must also confront lack of resources, illiteracy, unemployment and underemployment, and deteriorating economies, makes all forms of international assistance imperative. The need for assistance to alleviate burdens placed on their national administration, in supporting the international legal framework and cooperation in the application of law, should also be underlined. Technical support should also be extended to facilitate the effective implementation of legal instruments. 71. The main responsibility rests at the national level, and involves countering the disintegration of social structures, which previously may have discouraged an individual from turning to drug abuse, trafficking or illicit cultivation and production. Promoting a cohesive social structure, while supporting opportunities to access lawful sources of employment and income, can contribute to the quality of the individual's living environment and may be the best guarantee against his or her turning to drug abuse and/or drug trafficking. International cooperation has a key role to play in complementing national efforts. Chapter II. Follow-up to the World Summit for Social Development 5. At the 14th meeting, on 20 February, the Chairman made the following statement: "I take it that it is the wish of the Commission that the following documents should be transmitted to the Preparatory Committee for the special session of the General Assembly in 2000 for an overall review and appraisal of the implementation of the outcome of the World Summit for Social Development at its organizational session (19-22 May 1998): resolution S-1996/1, entitled "Strategies and actions for the eradication of poverty", 1/ adopted by the Commission for Social Development at its special session in 1996; and resolution 35/2, entitled "Productive employment and sustainable livelihoods", 2/ adopted by the Commission at its thirty-fifth session in 1997, by which the Commission decided to adopt agreed conclusions on productive employment and sustainable livelihoods." Promoting social integration through responsive government, full participation in society, non-discrimination, tolerance, equality and social justice Commission on Social Development 1998 SUMMARY Commission for Social Development 35th session, 10-20 February 1998 The agreed conclusions contain recommendations for action at local, national, regional and international levels in the areas of promoting social integration through responsive government, full participation in society, non-discrimination, tolerance, equality and social justice; enhancing social protection, reducing vulnerability and enhancing employment opportunities for groups with specific needs; and violence, crime and the problem of illicit drugs and substance abuse as factors of social disintegration. Copenhagen +5, Geneva 2000: Review of the World Summit for Social Development Advance unedited version of the Comprehensive Report on the Implementation of the Outcome of the World Summit for Social Development Report of the Secretary-General, PART I: Overview Introduction The World Summit for Social Development (WSSD) convened by the United Nations in Copenhagen in March 1995 was a milestone in strengthening commitments by governments to social development and to strategies for improving the human condition. The choice of its core themes -- the eradication of poverty, the achievement of full employment and the promotion of secure, stable and just societies -- signified a recognition by States to the importance of making social improvements an integral part of development strategy at the national and international levels as well as to placing people at the center of development efforts. A. Main findings 1. Social development has been severely tested in the five years which have elapsed since 117 heads of State or Government pledged to make the eradication of poverty, full employment and the fostering of stable, safe and just societies their overriding objectives. The purpose of this report is to assess the degree to which the ten commitments for social development made at Copenhagen have been implemented and have resulted in a concrete impact on human welfare. 3. Since Copenhagen there has been a growing awareness of the need to reconcile social and economic policy. Many governments have reported on levels of poverty, income inequality and unemployment which are unacceptable in human terms, which have become unsustainable politically, and which inflict such terrible financial costs that a new vision for economic policy has been required. This realization has various manifestations, including the growing concern of a number of national and international institutions, which were perviously narrowly focused on economic policy but which have now adopted poverty eradication as a central goal. 4. Overall, some clear progress in social development has been achieved. Areas of progress include: Greater awareness of and commitment to social development as an overriding goal of government policy; Heightened visibility for the various dimensions of social development in national policies and in international institutions; Increased attention to the goal of full employment, renewing hope that it is an achievable goal. Progress, however, has been slow and uneven and threatened often by hidden underemployment, widening informalization and lack of social protection; 5. On the other hand, the world has clearly regressed in other ways: Although relative poverty may have declined, the absolute numbers living in poverty globally have continued to grow; Local and regional conflicts have caused setbacks to social integration in many countries; The world has become a more unequal place, both within and between nations, with increasing inequalities in income, in employment, in access to social services and in opportunities for participation in public and civil society institutions; Contrary to the commitment made at Copenhagen to strengthen cooperation for social development through the UN, resources allocated for this purpose have declined. The burden of debt has also grown markedly, further squeezing resources available for social development. Recognition of the unsustainability of this debt, however, has led to strengthened debt reduction policy for the poorest countries; With liberalization of capital flows, the world has become more vulnerable to sudden financial shocks with severe social and economic consequences. Furthermore, the real victims of such shocks are increasingly powerless to rectify their social situation. 9. The growth of inequality: Growing inequality within and between nations calls for more focussed policies aiming for a more equitable distribution of resources and of opportunities within and amongst nations. Whereas inequality was once viewed as the price paid for economic growth, it may in fact have become an impediment to sustainable growth. Inequality relates directly to all three of the main themes of Copenhagen, namely, poverty, unemployment and social exclusion. Inequality in incomes, skills and access to social services is an issue that affects future generations as well as the present one. Urgent action is required to replace inequality with solidarity and to ensure that opportunities are not rationed to the lucky few, but rather are available to all. 10. Informalization of employment: In many developing countries, formal sector employment represents a small and declining share of the labour market. Since in many parts of the world, formal sector employment is not growing fast enough to absorb an expanding workforce, there is renewed interest in the informal sector as a means to absorb new job seekers. Furthermore the informal sector is no longer just characteristic of developing countries: all over the world, the informal sector is growing in a symbiotic relationship with the formal sector. Globalization and liberalization are resulting in new linkages between the formal and informal sectors. Therefore, a major challenge for employment policy is in how to improve revenues from and social protection in the informal sector. In some parts of the world, companies are relying on subcontracting labour and products as a way of avoiding providing employment benefits. Membership of labour unions has been declining in many parts of the world. 11. The working poor: Although in some parts of the world employment has increased, all too often the new jobs are of low quality, and associated with insecurity, low wages and inadequate social protection. Increasingly employment is not sufficient to bring people out of poverty. Therefore an important issue is the growing phenomenon of the "working poor"and what can a done to improve wages, job security and social protection at the low end of the labour market? 12. Making economic growth more employment-intensive: One major challenge facing the Social Summit process is how to create more and better jobs, not just through fostering faster economic growth, but by enabling this growth to be more employment-intensive. There is considerable scope for creating new jobs within the limits of existing resources and using market-based parameters by re-orienting investment policies in a pro-poor and employment-friendly direction. Countries implementing welfare-to-work policies, or embarking on public works programmes, community-based infrastructure development or urban rehabilitation all have an interest in maximizing the impact of these initiatives on employment. Unemployment represents an enormous cost to society, just as does environmental pollution. The cost, and benefits, of introducing incentives for employment creation should be weighed against the costs inflicted on society by high levels of unemployment and underemployment. To be sustainable, such programmes should also foster increasing worker productivity, training and rely on market-based mechanisms. 17. Globalization and liberalization: Globalization and liberalization are posing new, although not identical, challenges to, and opportunities for social development. There is growing concern with achieving a more equitable sharing of the benefits of globalization. Many governments, which have made great sacrifices in the framework of economic reforms and liberalization of their economies, feel they have yet to reap the anticipated benefits. What global institutional mechanisms are required to address the impact of liberalized trade and capital movements on social development? Although flows of labour have not kept pace with liberalization of trade and investments, new forms of employment and labour mobility should be anticipated and addressed in the global economy. What policies, strategies and tools can be developed to manage better the process of globalization to the benefit of human development. A major challenge facing the Special Session will be how to address social development in an integrated manner, that is, how to globalize social development, while at the same time respecting local values and cultures. B. Assessing progress in poverty eradication, full employment, social integration, resource mobilization and capacity building 20. Part I contains summarized contents of a total of seventy-four national reports received from Governments in response to the note verbal of the Secretary-General. The national efforts and achievements to implement the outcome of the WSSD are presented in five chapters: poverty eradication, employment creation, social integration, mobilization of resources and capacity building for social development. 21. All reports reiterate the commitment of Governments to achieve the objectives of eradication of poverty, employment creation and social integration. In their strategies, policies and programmes, governments place priority on overall social development and many have formulated strategies for the eradication of poverty within identified periods of time. Governments have also set up institutions and mechanisms specifically with responsibilities for implementing programmes to which countries committed themselves at the Social Summit. 22. It is evident from the responses of States that achieving the objectives of poverty eradication, employment creation and social integration are not only the outcome of policies that are highly integrated but that those policies affect deeply other aspects of society, including the political. High rates of economic growth absorb reserves of unemployed labour and reduce unemployment in the long run, but it is also clear that economic growth alone is insufficient to achieve full employment; it must be accompanied by the right balance between the demand and supply of labour. Similarly, high rates of economic growth are conducive to social integration, but targeted policies aiming explicitly to strengthen social integration are also essential. Political processes, the nature of the State and efficiency in Government are essential for the mobilization of resources for social development, both domestically and overseas, and in capacity building for the formulation and implementation of policies and programmes. Civil society groups have become indispensable partners to Governments in their efforts to eradicate poverty, create employment and promote social integration. Poverty eradication 24. However, despite this plethora of national measures, it is evident from the national reports that the years since the Summit have posed severe problems for poverty eradication. In the least developed economies, mostly in Africa, economic growth has barely resumed. In the countries with economies in transition, universal social security schemes have broken down and no adequate arrangements have been introduced to replace them. Member States affected by recent international financial crises have suffered reduced incomes and increased poverty. In some developed countries, high unemployment, increasing inequality in income distribution and changes in welfare policies have done little to reduce poverty. Floods, drought, tornadoes and earthquakes have also increased the numbers living in poverty. The HIV/AIDS epidemic has cost many lives, stretched the demand for medical services and left many children orphaned and poor. Civil war and ethnic conflict in a number of countries has reduced rates of economic growth, destroyed physical assets, disabled large numbers and killed many. Economic sanctions have reduced the capacity of affected countries to grow and increased the number of poor in those societies. Large populations have been displaced or driven out as refugees to eke out poor living in great discomfort. War has also claimed resources that could otherwise have been used to provide social services. 25. All countries seek sustained economic growth as a basis for a sound social development. Many developing countries have carried out radical economic reforms to stabilize prices, reduce the role of government and change the structure of their economies. These reforms, however, together have often increased unemployment, reduced the security of employment and incomes and so increased poverty. Cut backs in government expenditure as well as increased foreign debt servicing has reduced the resources for poverty alleviation. The promise of poverty eradication as a result of faster growth consequent upon stabilization and structural adjustment programmes generally remains to be delivered. Even where economic growth has been sustained over the short term, there has often been no substantial increase in employment. 27. The constraints on resources for social protection and the failure of economic growth to generate significant employment opportunities is posing dilemmas for policy making, particularly in developing countries, pitting short term poverty alleviation priorities against investment for longer term growth. The absence in many developing countries and in some economies in transition of a strong private sector, has led many governments to embrace the need to create an enabling environment that would make it possible for entrepreneurs and the private sector to play an influential role in the process of growth and development. Full Employment 30. It is evident in most national reports that employment is an issue that impacts on other main themes of the Social Summit including poverty alleviation, social integration, the mobilization of resources and capacity building. Employment is at the centre of all aspects of social development, and policies for full employment are an integral part of broader social and economic policies. 31. Governments report on measures such as macro-economic policies, including liberalization of trade and capital flows at the international level as well as fiscal and monetary policy and economic and structural adjustment at the national level; the establishment of consultation mechanisms with social partners and civil society in the formulation of employment policies; specific labour market policies to reduce unemployment for women, youth, older persons, the disabled, indigenous people and the long-term unemployed; education, training and skills-enhancement of the workforce; efforts to increase labour market flexibility, including more even distribution of employment; local and regional employment initiatives, including investments in infrastructure; and enhancing the quality of employment. 32. The goal of full employment has in practical terms often been neglected in favour of a macro-economic policy aimed at stabilization, fiscal austerity and budgetary balance. An analysis of national reports reflects a divergence on whether or not employment can best be achieved indirectly, by putting in place what are viewed as Asound macro-economic policies", or directly, by explicitly modifying and targeting such policies to foster employment creation. 33. Since Copenhagen, social and economic policy has become less the domain of technocrats. Increasingly these issues are becoming the subject of scrutiny by, and indeed the responsibility of, politically elected representatives as well as of social partners representing the world of work. The national reports highlight the importance of recognizing that the goal of full employment has political and social ramifications to which economic policy must adequately respond. Whereas robust economic growth continues to be a strong determinant of employment creation, increasing attention is being paid to how to increase the employment intensity of economic growth, both in the skill-intensive knowledge-based economies as well as in labour-intensive developing economies. 34. There have been tendencies to integrate income support policies for the excluded and vulnerable with active labour market policies in favour of those able to work. This trend, while prominent in the labour market, is at the centre of policies designed to combat social exclusion. Social security systems have been installed to provide social safety nets. It has been increasingly recognized that active labour market policies must work to eliminate dependence and to decrease financially and politically unsustainable levels of social assistance by giving priority to employment and inclusion. 35. However, the shift from welfare to work, when poorly implemented, contributes to increasing the number of working poor. In some countries, sharp curtailments in the scope, level and coverage of various forms of social security (i.e., pensions, disability allowances, unemployment insurance, subsidies) has resulted in pushing people into poorly remunerated employment in an uncertain job market. In countries where an increase in employment of this nature was reported, often the increase has been largely in short-term employment, part-time work and other insecure and poorly protected forms of employment. In developing countries, employment in the formal sector has stagnated and often regressed with increased employment confined largely to the informal economy. Therefore the challenge of employment policy is not simply on creating more "jobs" but also on creating what the ILO Director-General has called "decent" work. It is necessary to take uncertainty and insecurity out of employment in developed countries and improve productivity and extend social protection in the informal sector in developing and transitional economies. 36. A final conclusion relating to employment derived from the reports is the importance of implementing polices and programmes to achieve goals set by governments and the rest of society. In many countries, governments have developed national policies and programmes for employment creation but employment has either stagnated or in, some instances, regressed. Setting national goals and policies is essential but unless implemented with determinated effort, that process achieves little. Social Integration 38. The national reports show that expansion of economic space often permits better integration of various groups in society but slow economic growth and development in some and economic decline in others during the last five years has been a principal barrier to closer social integration. People in poverty have been marginalized with poor capabilities to participate fully in the functioning of their societies. Unemployment has not only driven persons into poverty but also disrupted social bonds and networks established through the workplace. Unemployment and poverty has reduced chances for children to receive education and fully participate in common processes of socialization. 51. In general, the importance of international funding for social development is underlined by most countries and increasing attention is being given to social development in development cooperation. Poverty eradication through sustainable development is defined by many countries as the chief objective of international development assistance. Funding policies frequently make explicit provisions for investment in basic social services, especially education and health. Strategies to combat social exclusion, and to a lesser extent unemployment, form part of most donor-supported poverty eradication strategies. 57. The relationship between direct and indirect measures to address poverty in developing countries, the relative role of immediate measures to ameliorate poverty such as employment generation and fair remuneration for goods and services by the market and more medium term measures such as primary education and basic health, and the right balance between investments in infrastructure and in the social sector, are areas that require further consideration. 58. The role of development cooperation to augment the productive potential of people in developing countries and to build the capacity of the private sector to compete more effectively in the global market place and the role of micro-credit in generating employment, particularly for women also needs to be more fully exploited. C. International and regional cooperation for social development 67. Part II of this report describes activities undertaken and progress achieved in international and regional cooperation. However, more important that describing each and every major initiative in international and regional cooperation, this report describes a new determination and spirit of cooperation across national boundaries in the field of social development. United Nations funds, programmes and specialized agencies are at the same time sharpening the focus of their activities within their respective mandates, while realizing that many of the solutions to the problems faced by their constituents are to be found outside their given sectors of expertise. To name just a few examples, health, education and employment are closely intertwined, with strong implications for institutional modalities within and outside of the United Nations system. Perhaps even more central are the new initiatives and modalities of collaboration being developed between organizations that were previously viewed as having exclusively either social or economic mandates. The new spirit of consultation and collaboration between the United Nations and its Specialized Agencies, the Bretton Woods institutions and other organizations such as the OECD, the G7 and the G15 is underpinned by a growing recognition that economic and social policies are not only intertwined, but rather part of the same whole. D. Evaluation of Regional Trends in Social Development East Asia and the Pacific 75. Several lessons can be learned from the recent experience of the countries of East Asia, particularly those that have gone through a stage of increased unemployment, poverty and social disruption after a period of high economic growth. 76. The first lesson that can be learned from the at times spectacular growth and its positive impact on poverty and employment is that the effects were not always a result of deliberate government intervention, but were created by households and families empowered by increased demand and determined to raise their living standards. At the same time, mitigations of the adverse impacts of the crisis on health and education can be traced to the resilience of Asian families in choosing to spend higher proportions of their household budgets on health and education, rather than governments forcing them to do so. Naturally, the important role of governments in enabling households to make these decisions must be commended 78. A third obvious lesson from the recent East Asian experience is that a swift policy response is required in times of external shock. It has become clear that a social relief policy, directly aimed at reducing the impact of an external shock on employment, health and schooling systems, needs to be integrated into coping strategy from the very onset of the crisis. This of course requires a strong capacity from governments to closely monitor those social impacts. To illustrate this latter point, after almost three years from the onset of the crisis, there is still only scarce evidence on the impact of the crisis on household income in Indonesia and even less on employment patterns. Little empirical evidence exists on the perceived negative impact of the crisis on crime, delinquency and drug use. 79. A fourth lesson is demonstrated by the Korean response to the employment crisis, which emerged in the country in 1997 that large-scale public works projects can at least temporarily serve as a cushion for laid-off workers. What worked in the early thirties in the fallout from the U.S. Great Depression, appears to work again 70 years later in Asia. Those projects appear to have increased domestic demand, while at the same time offsetting the unemployment problem for a while. It had earlier been noted that the Republic of Korea had lacked the large rural backbone which had managed to absorb the excess labour from the cities, as had been the case in Thailand, Indonesia, and other countries in Southeast Asia. However, in order to succeed, those public works projects should not add to large overcapacities that currently exist in many industrial sectors in Asia; they should be based on sound economic principles and have clear economic and social benefits to society; and should, obviously, not be designed to sustain poorly-managed private companies with public funds. Eastern Europe, the Baltic States and the CIS 81. The reconstruction of fundamental institutions of society in Eastern Europe, the Baltic States and the CIS countries has been more difficult and prolonged than was generally expected. Economic decline, poverty, unemployment and social disintegration over the years since the WSSD has been the consequence of those difficulties and delays. There is growing awareness among both policy makers and the public at large that the social dimensions of development are integral parts of the re-construction processes at work. While the need for short term and piece meal measures is well recognized, solutions to problems of poverty, employment creation and social integration are seen essentially as emerging in the long term. The genuine participation and involvement of the public is an essential pre-requisite in the search for those solutions. The articulation of the points of view of groups who are in positions of disadvantage is of enormous importance in seeking solutions to their problems. They also need to be partners in processes of decision making and implementation. OECD countries 103. Even with high levels of income, robust economic growth and well functioning institutions, poverty, unemployment and social disintegration were important social problems in the OECD countries. Poverty in these societies was not as severe as in most developing countries. Unemployment was most of the time relieved by transfer payments from government. Social integration had more to do with economic opportunities than with ethnic or religious differences. 104. In periods of rapid economic and social change with new techniques of production and changing patterns of social behaviour, failure to participate in the new production processes became a significant cause of poverty and social exclusion. Persons so excluded faced long term unemployment or low wage employment both of which dragged them down to poverty. If for mostly other reasons, those so unemployed also could not provide family support, those families and children ran the danger of suffering from all the disadvantages of poverty including short lives, poor education and social exclusion. 105. More resources by themselves did not always raise the quality or effectiveness of social service delivery. There were substantial differences in levels of expenditure on health care and education services both within and between countries that did not translate themselves into tactile differences in the quality of services. Experiments with alternative mechanics were still too short lived for assessment. Substantial government expenditure has enabled the OECD societies to work to reduce poverty, promote employment and secure social integration. There were several mixtures of social institutions that could work together to produce roughly similar outcomes. E. Conclusion 108. In conclusion, new initiatives will have to embrace an integrated approach to social development. Political will and ownership for such initiatives will have to be mobilised by developing specific constituencies around given sets of issues, for example, in the fields of employment, health, education, etc. However, the constituents or stakeholders representing given issues will also have to read beyond their given sectors if sustainable solutions are to be found. For example, the key to good health may be found in decent work, and the key to full employment may be found in access to education for all. Successful implementation of the Copenhagen commitments will necessitate combining renewed political will with the ability to translate commitment into action, and with the courage to reach beyond one's own constituency and sector towards integrated partnerships for social development. 109. The Preparatory Committee for the Special Session of the General Assembly on Follow-up to the Social Summit has decided that the Special Session of the General Assembly should not re-negotiate the commitments made at Copenhagen in 1995. The challenge facing the General Assembly is therefore rather to develop the political will and practical tools necessary to put those commitments into practice. Agenda 21 Chapter 3. Combating Poverty 3.3. Integral to such action is, together with international support, the promotion of economic growth in developing countries that is both sustained and sustainable and direct action in eradicating poverty by strengthening employment and income-generating programmes. Objectives 3.4. The long-term objective of enabling all people to achieve sustainable livelihoods should provide an integrating factor that allows policies to address issues of development, sustainable resource management and poverty eradication simultaneously. The objectives of this programme area are: (a) To provide all persons urgently with the opportunity to earn a sustainable livelihood; (b) To implement policies and strategies that promote adequate levels of funding and focus on integrated human development policies, including income generation, increased local control of resources, local institution-strengthening and capacity-building and greater involvement of non-governmental organizations and local levels of government as delivery mechanisms; (c) To develop for all poverty-stricken areas integrated strategies and programmes of sound and sustainable management of the environment, resource mobilization, poverty eradication and alleviation, employment and income generation; (d) To create a focus in national development plans and budgets on investment in human capital, with special policies and programmes directed at rural areas, the urban poor, women and children. Activities (c) Contain a long-term strategy aimed at establishing the best possible conditions for sustainable local, regional and national development that would eliminate poverty and reduce the inequalities between various population groups. It should assist the most disadvantaged groups - in particular, women, children and youth within those groups -and refugees. The groups will include poor smallholders, pastoralists, artisans, fishing communities, landless people, indigenous communities, migrants and the urban informal sector. 3.7. Sustainable development must be achieved at every level of society. Peoples' organizations, women's groups and non-governmental organizations are important sources of innovation and action at the local level and have a strong interest and proven ability to promote sustainable livelihoods. Governments, in cooperation with appropriate international and non-governmental organizations, should support a community-driven approach to sustainability, which would include, inter alia: (b) With international support, where necessary, develop adequate infrastructure, marketing systems, technology systems, credit systems and the like and the human resources needed to support the above actions and to achieve a widening of options for resource-poor people. High priority should be given to basic education and professional training; (d) Empower community organizations and people to enable them to achieve sustainable livelihoods; 3.10. The United Nations system, through its relevant organs, organizations and bodies, in cooperation with Member States and with appropriate international and non-governmental organizations, should make poverty alleviation a major priority and should: (a) Assist Governments, when requested, in the formulation and implementation of national action programmes on poverty alleviation and sustainable development. Action-oriented activities of relevance to the above objectives, such as poverty eradication, projects and programmes supplemented where relevant by food aid, and support and special emphasis on employment and income generation, should be given particular attention in this regard; Agenda 21 Chapter 14. Promoting Sustainable Agriculture and Rural Development Introduction 14.2. Major adjustments are needed in agricultural, environmental and macroeconomic policy, at both national and international levels, in developed as well as developing countries, to create the conditions for sustainable agriculture and rural development (SARD). The major objective of SARD is to increase food production in a sustainable way and enhance food security. This will involve education initiatives, utilization of economic incentives and the development of appropriate and new technologies, thus ensuring stable supplies of nutritionally adequate food, access to those supplies by vulnerable groups, and production for markets; employment and income generation to alleviate poverty; and natural resource management and environmental protection. 14.24. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the relevant international and regional organizations, should introduce management strategies and mechanisms, such as accounting and audit services for rural people's organizations and institutions for human resource development, and delegate administrative and financial responsibilities to local levels for decision-making, revenue-raising and expenditure. Agenda 21 Chapter 24. Global Action for Women Towards Sustainable and Equitable Development Programme Area Basis for action 24.1. The international community has endorsed several plans of action and conventions for the full, equal and beneficial integration of women in all development activities, in particular the Nairobi Forward-looking Strategies for the Advancement of Women, 1/ which emphasize women's participation in national and international ecosystem management and control of environment degradation. Several conventions, including the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (General Assembly resolution 34/180, annex) and conventions of ILO and UNESCO have also been adopted to end gender-based discrimination and ensure women access to land and other resources, education and safe and equal employment. Also relevant are the 1990 World Declaration on the Survival, Protection and Development of Children and the Plan of Action for implementing the Declaration (A/45/625, annex). Effective implementation of these programmes will depend on the active involvement of women in economic and political decision-making and will be critical to the successful implementation of Agenda 21. Activities 24.3. Governments should take active steps to implement the following: (f) Programmes to support and strengthen equal employment opportunities and equitable remuneration for women in the formal and informal sectors with adequate economic, political and social support systems and services, including child care, particularly day-care facilities and parental leave, and equal access to credit, land and other natural resources; Agenda 21 Chapter 25. Children and Youth in Sustainable Development A. Advancing the role of youth and actively involving them in the protection of the environment and the promotion of economic and social development 25.3. Numerous actions and recommendations within the international community have been proposed to ensure that youth are provided a secure and healthy future, including an environment of quality, improved standards of living and access to education and employment. These issues need to be addressed in development planning. Objectives 25.6. Each country should undertake initiatives aimed at reducing current levels of youth unemployment, particularly where they are disproportionately high in comparison to the overall unemployment rate. Activities 25.9. Governments, according to their strategies, should take measures to: (e) In cooperation with relevant ministries and organizations, including representatives of youth, develop and implement strategies for creating alternative employment opportunities and provide required training to young men and women; Agenda 21 Chapter 29. Strengthening the Role of Workers and Their Trade Unions Objectives 29.2. The overall objective is poverty alleviation and full and sustainable employment, which contribute to safe, clean and healthy environments - the working environment, the community and the physical environment. Workers should be full participants in the implementation and evaluation of activities related to Agenda 21. Activities (b) Strengthening participation and consultation 29.5. Governments, business and industry should promote the active participation of workers and their trade unions in decisions on the design, implementation and evaluation of national and international policies and programmes on environment and development, including employment policies, industrial strategies, labour adjustment programmes and technology transfers. Agenda 21 Chapter 30. Strengthening the Role of Business and Industry Introduction 30.1. Business and industry, including transnational corporations, play a crucial role in the social and economic development of a country. A stable policy regime enables and encourages business and industry to operate responsibly and efficiently and to implement longer-term policies. Increasing prosperity, a major goal of the development process, is contributed primarily by the activities of business and industry. Business enterprises, large and small, formal and informal, provide major trading, employment and livelihood opportunities. Business opportunities available to women are contributing towards their professional development, strengthening their economic role and transforming social systems. Business and industry, including transnational corporations, and their representative organizations should be full participants in the implementation and evaluation of activities related to Agenda 21. B. Promoting responsible entrepreneurship Basis for action 30.17. Entrepreneurship is one of the most important driving forces for innovations, increasing market efficiencies and responding to challenges and opportunities. Small and medium-sized entrepreneurs, in particular, play a very important role in the social and economic development of a country. Often, they are the major means for rural development, increasing off-farm employment and providing the transitional means for improving the livelihoods of women. Responsible entrepreneurship can play a major role in improving the efficiency of resource use, reducing risks and hazards, minimizing wastes and safeguarding environmental qualities. Agenda 21 Chapter 36. Promoting Education, Public Awareness and Training C. Promoting training Basis for action 36.12. Training is one of the most important tools to develop human resources and facilitate the transition to a more sustainable world. It should have a job-specific focus, aimed at filling gaps in knowledge and skill that would help individuals find employment and be involved in environmental and development work. At the same time, training programmes should promote a greater awareness of environment and development issues as a two-way learning process. Earth Summit II, 1997 Chapter 3. Implementation of Agenda 21 in areas requiring urgent action Section A. Integration of economic, social and environmental objectives 23. Economic development, social development and environmental protection are interdependent and mutually reinforcing components of sustainable development. Sustained economic growth is essential to the economic and social development of all countries, in particular developing countries. Through such growth, which should be broadly based so as to benefit all people, countries will be able to improve the standards of living of their people through the eradication of poverty, hunger, disease and illiteracy and the provision of adequate shelter and secure employment for all, and the preservation of the integrity of the environment. Growth can foster development only if its benefits are fully shared. It must therefore also be guided by equity, justice and social and environmental considerations. Development, in turn, must involve measures that improve the human condition and the quality of life itself. Democracy, respect for all human rights and fundamental freedoms, including the right to development, transparent and accountable governance in all sectors of society, as well as effective participation by civil society, are also an essential part of the necessary foundations for the realization of social and people-centred sustainable development. 24. Sustainable development strategies are important mechanisms for enhancing and linking national capacity so as to bring together priorities in social, economic and environmental policies. Hence, special attention must be given to the fulfilment of commitments in the areas set out below, in the framework of an integrated approach towards development, consisting of mutually reinforcing measures to sustain economic growth, as well as to promote social development and environmental protection. Achieving sustainable development cannot be carried out without greater integration at all policy-making levels and at operational levels, including the lowest administrative levels possible. Economic sectors, such as industry, agriculture, energy, transport and tourism, must take responsibility for the impact of their activities on human well-being and the physical environment. In the context of good governance, properly constructed strategies can enhance prospects for economic growth and employment and at the same time protect the environment. All sectors of society should be involved in their development and implementation, as follows: Population 30. The impact of the relationship among economic growth, poverty, employment, environment and sustainable development has become a major concern. There is a need to recognize the critical linkages between demographic trends and factors and sustainable development. The current decline in population growth rates must be further promoted through national and international policies that promote economic development, social development, environmental protection, and poverty eradication, particularly the further expansion of basic education, with full and equal access for girls and women, and health care, including reproductive health care, including both family planning and sexual health, consistent with the report of the International Conference on Population and Development. 20/ Section B. Sectors and issues Energy 43. In developing countries, sharp increases in energy services are required to improve the standard of living of their growing populations. The increase in the level of energy services would have a beneficial impact on poverty eradication by increasing employment opportunities and improving transportation, health and education. Many developing countries, in particular the least developed, face the urgent need to provide adequate modern energy services, especially to billions of people in rural areas. This requires significant financial, human and technical resources and a broad-based mix of energy sources. Land and sustainable agriculture 63. It remains essential to continue efforts for the eradication of poverty through, inter alia, capacity-building to reinforce local food systems, improving food security and providing adequate nutrition for the more than 800 million undernourished people in the world, located mainly in developing countries. Governments should formulate policies that promote sustainable agriculture as well as productivity and profitability. Comprehensive rural policies are required to improve access to land, combat poverty, create employment and reduce rural emigration. 36.17. Countries should encourage all sectors of society, such as industry, universities, government officials and employees, non-governmental organizations and community organizations, to include an environmental management component in all relevant training activities, with emphasis on meeting immediate skill requirements through short-term formal and in-plant vocational and management training. Environmental management training capacities should be strengthened, and specialized "training of trainers" programmes should be established to support training at the national and enterprise levels. New training approaches for existing environmentally sound practices should be developed that create employment opportunities and make maximum use of local resource-based methods. 36.18. Countries should strengthen or establish practical training programmes for graduates from vocational schools, high schools and universities, in all countries, to enable them to meet labour market requirements and to achieve sustainable livelihoods. Training and retraining programmes should be established to meet structural adjustments which have an impact on employment and skill qualifications. 36.22. Countries should enhance the ability to gain access to, analyse and effectively use information and knowledge available on environment and development. Existing or established special training programmes should be strengthened to support information needs of special groups. The impact of these programmes on productivity, health, safety and employment should be evaluated. National and regional environmental labour-market information systems should be developed that would supply, on a continuing basis, data on environmental job and training opportunities. Environment and development training resource-guides should be prepared and updated, with information on training programmes, curricula, methodologies and evaluation results at the local, national, regional and international levels. Human Rights Review Follow-up to the World Conference on Human Rights, New York 1998 VIII. Special protection VI. Equal status and human rights of women 41. Many States have strengthened the ability of women to exercise their rights. Steps have been taken by Governments to better reflect these rights in national law. In addition, some countries have lifted reservations to the Convention on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women. Several States have embarked on national plans of action that espouse the goal of gender equality by the year 2000. Measures at the national level have also included changes in constitutional and penal laws prohibiting domestic violence, sexual assault and female genital mutilation; enactment of emancipation policies; and the establishment of governmental structures responsible for the management of gender-oriented policies. New laws have been adopted to promote the political advancement of women and support the employment of women in public service. Changes in family law have established additional protection for women against economic discrimination in cases of divorce. The creation of various female education programmes has been widely recognized to be one of the most fundamental means of increasing the overall welfare of women and thus the entire community. Education empowers women with the knowledge, skills and resources necessary to improve their lives. Priority should be given to eliminating the social and cultural barriers that continue to exclude women and girls from regular education programmes. Rights of indigenous peoples Rights of persons belonging to national or ethnic, religious and linguistic minorities 60. The World Conference on Human Rights urged Governments to promote and protect the rights of persons belonging to minorities, and to facilitate their full participation in the social, economic, cultural and religious life of society. Governments, in accordance with the 1992 Declaration on the Rights of Persons belonging to Minorities, have focused on legal and institutional measures to protect the cultural, religious and linguistic integrity of minorities, ensure the participation of minorities in decision-making concerning questions involving their status, and to promote minority development. Several new constitutions ensure the protection of minorities. Laws concerning the status of minorities and the rights of their members have been enacted. School instruction in minority languages has been expanded. Policies of support to projects aimed at the preservation of cultural heritage, as well as special measures to reduce unemployment among minorities, have been adopted. Some Governments have established specialized institutions to deal with minority issues, which include representatives of minorities. A number of countries also report that they have ratified the Council of Europe Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities. Rights of disabled persons 70. States have taken steps to ensure that the rights of the disabled are respected by all sectors of society by passing legislation that prohibits discrimination based on physical handicaps. In many cases, laws concerning labour and social affairs have also been amended to ensure equal access to health, legal and employment facilities. Some countries have repealed antiquated laws dealing with the compulsory treatment of mentally ill patients. Programmes designed to protect the rights of persons with disabilities, including the allocation of increased budgetary resources, have been developed in some countries. Special institutions have also been mandated to provide assistance services and programmes for persons with disabilities to facilitate their full integration in all areas of society. Vocational training plays an important role in this respect. 71. Consideration of relevant issues by the United Nations organs and bodies demonstrates, however, that mass shortcomings in the area of employment, education, nutrition and health care bring about an increase in the disabled population and create a major obstacle to the realization of human rights of persons with disabilities. Situations of armed conflict and indiscriminate use of anti-personnel mines, particularly among civilian populations, have especially devastating consequences in this regard. The improvement of the situation of disabled persons remains a significant challenge to the international community. Universal ratification of the Convention on the Prohibition of the Use, Stockpiling, Production and Transfer of Anti-personnel Mines and on their Destruction would undoubtedly have an important preventive impact. 3rd World Conference on Women, Nairobi 1985 Summary: Nairobi Forward Looking Strategies for the Advancement of Women Recognition of women's unpaid work recognition of the extent and value of women's unpaid work, inside and outside the home inclusion of women's paid and unpaid work in national accounts and economic statistics the sharing of domestic responsibilities the development of services, to reduce women's child-care and domestic workload, including introduction of incentives to encourage employers to provide child-care facilities for working parents the establishment of flexible working hours to encourage the sharing of child-care and domestic work between parents Advances in women's paid work equal employment opportunities equal pay for work of equal value The Fourth World Conference on Women Chapter 1. Resolution 1. Annex II - The Beijing Platform for Action IV. Strategic Objectives and Actions A. Women and poverty 52. In too many countries, social welfare systems do not take sufficient account of the specific conditions of women living in poverty, and there is a tendency to scale back the services provided by such systems. The risk of falling into poverty is greater for women than for men, particularly in old age, where social security systems are based on the principle of continuous remunerated employment. In some cases, women do not fulfil this requirement because of interruptions in their work, due to the unbalanced distribution of remunerated and unremunerated work. Moreover, older women also face greater obstacles to labour-market re-entry. 53. In many developed countries, where the level of general education and professional training of women and men are similar and where systems of protection against discrimination are available, in some sectors the economic transformations of the past decade have strongly increased either the unemployment of women or the precarious nature of their employment. The proportion of women among the poor has consequently increased. In countries with a high level of school enrolment of girls, those who leave the educational system the earliest, without any qualification, are among the most vulnerable in the labour market. Strategic objective A.1. Review, adopt and maintain and development strategies that address the needs and efforts of women in poverty Actions to be taken 58. By Governments: (b) Analyse, from a gender perspective, policies and programmes - including those related to macroeconomic stability,structural adjustment, external debt problems, taxation, investments, employment, markets and all relevant sectors of the economy - with respect to their impact on poverty, on inequality and particularly on women; assess their impact on family well-being and conditions and adjust them, as appropriate, to promote more equitable distribution of productive assets, wealth, opportunities, income and services; (h) Generate economic policies that have a positive impact on the employment and income of women workers in both the formal and informal sectors and adopt specific measures to address women's unemployment, in particular their long-term unemployment; (j) Develop and implement anti-poverty programmes, including employment schemes, that improve access to food for women living in poverty, including through the use of appropriate pricing and distribution mechanisms; (k) Ensure the full realization of the human rights of all women migrants, including women migrant workers, and their protection against violence and exploitation; introduce measures for the empowerment of documented women migrants, including women migrant workers; facilitate the productive employment of documented migrant women through greater recognition of their skills, foreign education and credentials, and facilitate their full integration into the labour force; (l) Introduce measures to integrate or reintegrate women living in poverty and socially marginalized women into productive employment and the economic mainstream; ensure that internally displaced women have full access to economic opportunities and that the qualifications and skills of immigrant and refugee women are recognized; B. Education and training of women 75. Science curricula in particular are gender-biased. Science textbooks do not relate to women's and girls' daily experience and fail to give recognition to women scientists. Girls are often deprived of basic education in mathematics and science and technical training, which provide knowledge they could apply to improve their daily lives and enhance their employment opportunities. Advanced study in science and technology prepares women to take an active role in the technological and industrial development of their countries, thus necessitating a diverse approach to vocational and technical training. Technology is rapidly changing the world and has also affected the developing countries. It is essential that women not only benefit from technology, but also participate in the process from the design to the application, monitoring and evaluation stages. 82. By Governments, in cooperation with employers, workers and trade unions, international and non-governmental organizations, including women's and youth organizations, and educational institutions: (a) Develop and implement education, training and retraining policies for women, especially young women and women re-entering the labour market, to provide skills to meet the needs of a changing socio- economic context for improving their employment opportunities; (d) Design educational and training programmes for women who are unemployed in order to provide them with new knowledge and skills that will enhance and broaden their employment opportunities, including self-employment, and development of their entrepreneurial skills; C. Women and Health Strategic objective C.2. Strengthen preventive programmes that promote women's health Actions to be taken 107. By Governments, in cooperation with non-governmental organizations, the mass media, the private sector and relevant international organizations, including United Nations bodies, as appropriate: b. Pursue social, human development, education and employment policies to eliminate poverty among women in order to reduce their susceptibility to ill health and to improve their health; 151. In many regions, women's participation in remunerated work in the formal and non-formal labour market has increased significantly and has changed during the past decade. While women continue to work in agriculture and fisheries, they have also become increasingly involved in micro, small and medium-sized enterprises and, in some cases, have become more dominant in the expanding informal sector. Due to, inter alia, difficult economic situations and a lack of bargaining power resulting from gender inequality, many women have been forced to accept low pay and poor working conditions and thus have often become preferred workers. On the other hand, women have entered the workforce increasingly by choice when they have become aware of and demanded their rights. Some have succeeded in entering and advancing in the workplace and improving their pay and working conditions. However, women have been particularly affected by the economic situation and restructuring processes, which have changed the nature of employment and, in some cases, have led to a loss of jobs, even for professional and skilled women. In addition, many women have entered the informal sector owing to the lack of other opportunities. Women's participation and gender concerns are still largely absent from and should be integrated in the policy formulation process of the multilateral institutions that define the terms and, in cooperation with Governments, set the goals of structural adjustment programmes, loans and grants. 152. Discrimination in education and training, hiring and remuneration, promotion and horizontal mobility practices, as well as inflexible working conditions, lack of access to productive resources and inadequate sharing of family responsibilities, combined with a lack of or insufficient services such as child care, continue to restrict employment, economic, professional and other opportunities and mobility for women and make their involvement stressful. Moreover, attitudinal obstacles inhibit women's participation in developing economic policy and in some regions restrict the access of women and girls to education and training for economic management. 153. Women's share in the labour force continues to rise and almost everywhere women are working more outside the household, although there has not been a parallel lightening of responsibility for unremunerated work in the household and community. Women's income is becoming increasingly necessary to households of all types. In some regions, there has been a growth in women's entrepreneurship and other self-reliant activities, particularly in the informal sector. In many countries, women are the majority of workers in non-standard work, such as temporary, casual, multiple part-time, contract and home-based employment. 154. Women migrant workers, including domestic workers, contribute to the economy of the sending country through their remittances and also to the economy of the receiving country through their participation in the labour force. However, in many receiving countries, migrant women experience higher levels of unemployment compared with both non-migrant workers and male migrant workers. 155. Insufficient attention to gender analysis has meant that women's contributions and concerns remain too often ignored in economic structures, such as financial markets and institutions, labour markets, economics as an academic discipline, economic and social infrastructure, taxation and social security systems, as well as in families and households. As a result, many policies and programmes may continue to contribute to inequalities between women and men. Where progress has been made in integrating gender perspectives, programme and policy effectiveness has also been enhanced. 157. Although some new employment opportunities have been created for women as a result of the globalization of the economy, there are also trends that have exacerbated inequalities between women and men. At the same time, globalization, including economic integration, can create pressures on the employment situation of women to adjust to new circumstances and to find new sources of employment as patterns of trade change. More analysis needs to be done of the impact of globalization on women's economic status. 158. These trends have been characterized by low wages, little or no labour standards protection, poor working conditions, particularly with regard to women's occupational health and safety, low skill levels, and a lack of job security and social security, in both the formal and informal sectors. Women's unemployment is a serious and increasing problem in many countries and sectors. Young workers in the informal and rural sectors and migrant female workers remain the least protected by labour and immigration laws. Women, particularly those who are heads of households with young children, are limited in their employment opportunities for reasons that include inflexible working conditions and inadequate sharing, by men and by society, of family responsibilities. 160. Lack of employment in the private sector and reductions in public services and public service jobs have affected women disproportionately. In some countries, women take on more unpaid work, such as the care of children and those who are ill or elderly, compensating for lost household income, particularly when public services are not available. In many cases, employment creation strategies have not paid sufficient attention to occupations and sectors where women predominate; nor have they adequately promoted the access of women to those occupations and sectors that are traditionally male. 162. In the private sector, including transnational and national enterprises, women are largely absent from management and policy levels, denoting discriminatory hiring and promotion policies and practices. The unfavourable work environment as well as the limited number of employment opportunities available have led many women to seek alternatives. Women have increasingly become self-employed and owners and managers of micro, small and medium-scale enterprises. The expansion of the informal sector, in many countries, and of self-organized and independent enterprises is in large part due to women, whose collaborative, self-help and traditional practices and initiatives in production and trade represent a vital economic resource. When they gain access to and control over capital, credit and other resources, technology and training, women can increase production, marketing and income for sustainable development. 163. Taking into account the fact that continuing inequalities and noticeable progress coexist, rethinking employment policies is necessary in order to integrate the gender perspective and to draw attention to a wider range of opportunities as well as to address any negative gender implications of current patterns of work and employment. To realize fully equality between women and men in their contribution to the economy, active efforts are required for equal recognition and appreciation of the influence that the work, experience, knowledge and values of both women and men have in society. Strategic objective F.1 Promote women's economic rights and independence, including access to employment, appropriate working conditions and control over economic resources Actions to be taken 165. By Governments: (a) Enact and enforce legislation to guarantee the rights of women and men to equal pay for equal work or work of equal value; (b) Adopt and implement laws against discrimination based on sex in the labour market, especially considering older women workers, hiring and promotion, the extension of employment benefits and social security, and working conditions; (c) Eliminate discriminatory practices by employers and take appropriate measures in consideration of women's reproductive role and functions, such as the denial of employment and dismissal due to pregnancy or breast-feeding, or requiring proof of contraceptive use, and take effective measures to ensure that pregnant women, women on maternity leave or women re-entering the labour market after childbearing are not discriminated against; (g) Seek to develop a more comprehensive knowledge of work and employment through, inter alia, efforts to measure and better understand the type, extent and distribution of unremunerated work, particularly work in caring for dependants and unremunerated work done for family farms or businesses, and encourage the sharing and dissemination of information on studies and experience in this field, including the development of methods for assessing its value in quantitative terms, for possible reflection in accounts that may be produced separately from, but consistent with, core national accounts; (m) Adjust employment policies to facilitate the restructuring of work patterns in order to promote the sharing of family responsibilities; Strategic objective F.2. Facilitate women's equal access to resources, employment, markets and trade Actions to be taken 166. By Governments: (a) Promote and support women's self-employment and the development of small enterprises, and strengthen women's access to credit and capital on appropriate terms equal to those of men through the scaling-up of institutions dedicated to promoting women's entrepreneurship, including, as appropriate, non-traditional and mutual credit schemes, as well as innovative linkages with financial institutions; (b) Strengthen the incentive role of the State as employer to develop a policy of equal opportunities for women and men; (c) Enhance, at the national and local levels, rural women's income- generating potential by facilitating their equal access to and control over productive resources, land, credit, capital, property rights, development programmes and cooperative structures; (d) Promote and strengthen micro-enterprises, new small businesses, cooperative enterprises, expanded markets and other employment opportunities and, where appropriate, facilitate the transition from the informal to the formal sector, especially in rural areas; (e) Create and modify programmes and policies that recognize and strengthen women's vital role in food security and provide paid and unpaid women producers, especially those involved in food production, such as farming, fishing and aquaculture, as well as urban enterprises, with equal access to appropriate technologies, transportation, extension services, marketing and credit facilities at the local and community levels; (f) Establish appropriate mechanisms and encourage intersectoral institutions that enable women's cooperatives to optimize access to necessary services; (g) Increase the proportion of women extension workers and other government personnel who provide technical assistance or administer economic programmes; (j) Ensure equal access for women to effective job training, retraining, counselling and placement services that are not limited to traditional employment areas; Strategic objective F.3. Provide business services, training and access to markets, information and technology, particularly to low-income women Actions to be taken 173. By Governments in cooperation with non-governmental organizations and the private sector: (l) Safeguard and promote respect for basic workers' rights, including the prohibition of forced labour and child labour, freedom of association and the right to organize and bargain collectively, equal remuneration for men and women for work of equal value and non-discrimination in employment, fully implementing the conventions of the International Labour Organization in the case of States Parties to those conventions and, taking into account the principles embodied in the case of those countries that are not parties to those conventions in order to achieve truly sustained economic growth and sustainable development. (f) Take measures to ensure equal access of women to ongoing training in the workplace, including unemployed women, single parents, women re-entering the labour market after an extended temporary exit from employment owing to family responsibilities and other causes, and women displaced by new forms of production or by retrenchment, and increase incentives to enterprises to expand the number of vocational and training centres that provide training for women in non-traditional areas; 176. By financial intermediaries, national training institutes, credit unions, non-governmental organizations, women's associations, professional organizations and the private sector, as appropriate: (e) Promote and strengthen women's micro-enterprises, new small businesses, cooperative enterprises, expanded markets and other employment opportunities and, where appropriate, facilitate the transition from the informal to the formal sector, in rural and urban areas; Strategic objective F.5. Eliminate occupational segregation and all forms of employment discrimination Strategic objective J.1. Increase the participation and access of women to expression and decision- making in and through the media and new technologies of communication Actions to be taken 239. By Governments: (a) Support women's education, training and employment to promote and ensure women's equal access to all areas and levels of the media; Strategic objective C.5. Increase resources and monitor follow-up for women's health. Actions to be taken. 93. Discrimination against girls, often resulting from son preference, in access to nutrition and health-care services endangers their current and future health and well-being. Conditions that force girls into early marriage, pregnancy and child-bearing and subject them to harmful practices, such as female genital mutilation, pose grave health risks. Adolescent girls need, but too often do not have, access to necessary health and nutrition services as they mature. Counselling and access to sexual and reproductive health information and services for adolescents are still inadequate or lacking completely, and a young woman's right to privacy, confidentiality, respect and informed consent is often not considered. Adolescent girls are both biologically and psychosocially more vulnerable than boys to sexual abuse, violence and prostitution, and to the consequences of unprotected and premature sexual relations. The trend towards early sexual experience, combined with a lack of information and services, increases the risk of unwanted and too early pregnancy, HIV infection and other sexually transmitted diseases, as well as unsafe abortions. Early child-bearing continues to be an impediment to improvements in the educational, economic and social status of women in all parts of the world. Overall, for young women early marriage and early motherhood can severely curtail educational and employment opportunities and are likely to have a long-term, adverse impact on the quality of their lives and the lives of their children. Young men are often not educated to respect women's self-determination and to share responsibility with women in matters of sexuality and reproduction. Strategic objective H.2. Integrate gender perspectives in legislation, public policies, programmes and projects Actions to be taken 204. By Governments: (b) Regularly review national policies, programmes and projects, as well as their implementation, evaluating the impact of employment and income policies in order to guarantee that women are direct beneficiaries of development and that their full contribution to development, both remunerated and unremunerated, is considered in economic policy and planning; 205. By national machinery: (c) Undertake activities focusing on legal reform with regard, inter alia, to the family, conditions of employment, social security, income tax, equal opportunity in education, positive measures to promote the advancement of women, and the perception of attitudes and a culture favourable to equality, as well as promote a gender perspective in legal policy and programming reforms; f) Develop a more comprehensive knowledge of all forms of work and employment by: (i) Improving data collection on the unremunerated work which is already included in the United Nations System of National Accounts, such as in agriculture, particularly subsistence agriculture, and other types of non-market production activities; (ii) Improving measurements that at present underestimate women's unemployment and underemployment in the labour market; (iii) Developing methods, in the appropriate forums, for assessing the value, in quantitative terms, of unremunerated work that is outside national accounts, such as caring for dependants and preparing food, for possible reflection in satellite or other official accounts that may be produced separately from but are consistent with core national accounts, with a view to recognizing the economic contribution of women and making visible the unequal distribution of remunerated and unremunerated work between women and men; (g) Develop an international classification of activities for time-use statistics that is sensitive to the differences between women and men in remunerated and unremunerated work, and collect data disaggregated by sex. At the national level, subject to national constraints: (i) Conduct regular time-use studies to measure, in quantitative terms, unremunerated work, including recording those activities that are performed simultaneously with remunerated or other unremunerated activities; (ii) Measure, in quantitative terms, unremunerated work that is outside national accounts and work to improve methods to assess and accurately reflect its value in satellite or other official accounts that are separate from but consistent with core national accounts; (h) Improve concepts and methods of data collection on the measurement of poverty among women and men, including their access to resources; (i) Strengthen vital statistical systems and incorporate gender analysis into publications and research; give priority to gender differences in research design and in data collection and analysis in order to improve data on morbidity; and improve data collection on access to health services, including access to comprehensive sexual and reproductive health services, maternal care and family planning, with special priority for adolescent mothers and for elder care; International Conference on Population and Development (ICPD) Programme of Action of the International Conference on Population and Development Chapter 2 Measuring Gender Differences A. Un/Sustainable Lifestyles and Equity in Resource Use According to the authors, womens lesser use of transport is related to their domestic responsibilities and choice of employment. Women more often than men rear young children and may abstain from working outside the home. When they do work outside home, they may choose to work nearby. Womens employment is often within care and service sectors located in the centre of cities. Most public transportation is oriented in centre periphery directions which makes it easier for women to take public transport.The authors point out, that, the differences in men and womens energy use cannot only be attributed to differences in employment rates but possibly to differences in sectors of employment, ownership of a driving license and car and varied income levels. More men have driving licenses compared to women. The authors also stress the importance of income as influencing both the amount of travel done for work and leisure. Chapter 3 : Interrelationships between Population, Sustained Economic Growth and Sustainable Development B. Population, sustained economic growth and poverty Basis for action 3.13. Widespread poverty remains the major challenge to development efforts. Poverty is often accompanied by unemployment, malnutrition, illiteracy, low status of women, exposure to environmental risks and limited access to social and health services, including reproductive health services which, in turn, include family planning. All these factors contribute to high levels of fertility, morbidity and mortality, as well as to low economic productivity. Poverty is also closely related to inappropriate spatial distribution of population, to unsustainable use and inequitable distribution of such natural resources as land and water, and to serious environmental degradation. 3.15. Sustained economic growth within the context of sustainable development is essential to eradicate poverty. Eradication of poverty will contribute to slowing population growth and to achieving early population stabilization. Investments in fields important to the eradication of poverty, such as basic education, sanitation, drinking water, housing, adequate food supply and infrastructure for rapidly growing populations, continue to strain already weak economies and limit development options. The unusually high number of young people, a consequence of high fertility rates, requires that productive jobs be created for a continually growing labour force under conditions of already widespread unemployment. The numbers of elderly requiring public support will also increase rapidly in the future. Sustained economic growth in the context of sustainable development will be necessary to accommodate those pressures. Actions 3.17. Investment in human resource development, in accordance with national policy, must be given priority in population and development strategies and budgets, at all levels, with programmes specifically directed at increased access to information, education, skill development, employment opportunities, both formal and informal, and high-quality general and reproductive health services, including family planning and sexual health care, through the promotion of sustained economic growth within the context of sustainable development in developing countries and countries with economies in transition. Actions 3.29. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the international community and regional and subregional organizations, should formulate and implement population policies and programmes to support the objectives and actions agreed upon in Agenda 21, other Conference outcomes and other international environmental agreements, taking into account the common but differentiated responsibilities reflected in those agreements. Consistent with the framework and priorities set forth in Agenda 21, the following actions, inter alia, are recommended to help achieve population and environment integration: (b) Take measures aimed at the eradication of poverty, with special attention to income-generation and employment strategies directed at the rural poor and those living within or on the edge of fragile ecosystems Chapter 4 : Gender Equality, Equity and Empowerment of Women A. Empowerment and status of women Objectives 4.3. The objectives are: (b) To ensure the enhancement of women's contributions to sustainable development through their full involvement in policy- and decision-making processes at all stages and participation in all aspects of production, employment, income-generating activities, education, health, science and technology, sports, culture and population-related activities and other areas, as active decision makers, participants and beneficiaries; Actions 4.4. Countries should act to empower women and should take steps to eliminate inequalities between men and women as soon as possible by: (b) Promoting the fulfilment of women's potential through education, skill development and employment, giving paramount importance to the elimination of poverty, illiteracy and ill health among women; 4.21. Governments should strictly enforce laws to ensure that marriage is entered into only with the free and full consent of the intending spouses. In addition, Governments should strictly enforce laws concerning the minimum legal age of consent and the minimum age at marriage and should raise the minimum age at marriage where necessary. Governments and non-governmental organizations should generate social support for the enforcement of laws on the minimum legal age at marriage, in particular by providing educational and employment opportunities. Actions 4.26. The equal participation of women and men in all areas of family and household responsibilities, including family planning, child-rearing and housework, should be promoted and encouraged by Governments. This should be pursued by means of information, education, communication, employment legislation and by fostering an economically enabling environment, such as family leave for men and women so that they may have more choice regarding the balance of their domestic and public responsibilities. Chapter 5 : The Family, its Roles, Rights, Composition and Structure A. Diversity of family structure and composition Basis for action 5.1. While various forms of the family exist in different social, cultural, legal and political systems, the family is the basic unit of society and as such is entitled to receive comprehensive protection and support. The process of rapid demographic and socio-economic change throughout the world has influenced patterns of family formation and family life, generating considerable change in family composition and structure. Traditional notions of gender-based division of parental and domestic functions and participation in the paid labour force do not reflect current realities and aspirations, as more and more women in all parts of the world take up paid employment outside the home. At the same time, widespread migration, forced shifts of population caused by violent conflicts and wars, urbanization, poverty, natural disasters and other causes of displacement have placed greater strains on the family, since assistance from extended family support networks is often no longer available. Parents are often more dependent on assistance from third parties than they used to be in order to reconcile work and family responsibilities. This is particularly the case when policies and programmes that affect the family ignore the existing diversity of family forms, or are insufficiently sensitive to the needs and rights of women and children. B. Socio-economic support to the family Basis for action 5.7. Families are sensitive to strains induced by social and economic changes. It is essential to grant particular assistance to families in difficult life situations. Conditions have worsened for many families in recent years, owing to lack of gainful employment and measures taken by Governments seeking to balance their budget by reducing social expenditures . There are increasing numbers of vulnerable families, including single-parent families headed by women, poor families with elderly members or those with disabilities, refugee and displaced families, and families with members affected by AIDS or other terminal diseases, substance dependence, child abuse and domestic violence. Increased labour migrations and refugee movements are an additional source of family tension and disintegration and are contributing to increased responsibilities for women. In many urban environments, millions of children and youths are left to their own devices as family ties break down, and hence are increasingly exposed to risks such as dropping out of school, labour exploitation, sexual exploitation, unwanted pregnancies and sexually transmitted diseases. 5.10. All levels of Government, non-governmental organizations and concerned community organizations should develop innovative ways to provide more effective assistance to families and the individuals within them who may be affected by specific problems, such as extreme poverty, chronic unemployment, illness, domestic and sexual violence, dowry payments, drug or alcohol dependence, incest, and child abuse, neglect or abandonment. Chapter 6 : Population Growth and Structure B. Children and youth Basis for action 6.6. Owing to declining mortality levels and the persistence of high fertility levels, a large number of developing countries continue to have very large proportions of children and young people in their populations. For the less developed regions as a whole, 36 per cent of the population is under age 15, and even with projected fertility declines, that proportion will still be about 30 per cent by the year 2015. In Africa, the proportion of the population under age 15 is 45 per cent, a figure that is projected to decline only slightly, to 40 per cent, in the year 2015. Poverty has a devastating impact on children's health and welfare. Children in poverty are at high risk for malnutrition and disease and for falling prey to labour exploitation, trafficking, neglect, sexual abuse and drug addiction. The ongoing and future demands created by large young populations, particularly in terms of health, education and employment, represent major challenges and responsibilities for families, local communities, countries and the international community. First and foremost among these responsibilities is to ensure that every child is a wanted child. The second responsibility is to recognize that children are the most important resource for the future and that greater investments in them by parents and societies are essential to the achievement of sustained economic growth and development. Objectives 6.7. The objectives are: (b) To meet the special needs of adolescents and youth, especially young women, with due regard for their own creative capabilities, for social, family and community support, employment opportunities, participation in the political process, and access to education, health, counselling and high-quality reproductive health services; 6.13. Countries should aim to meet the needs and aspirations of youth, particularly in the areas of formal and non-formal education, training, employment opportunities, housing and health, thereby ensuring their integration and participation in all spheres of society, including participation in the political process and preparation for leadership roles. 6.14. Governments should formulate, with the active support of non-governmental organizations and the private sector, training and employment programmes. Primary importance should be given to meeting the basic needs of young people, improving their quality of life, and increasing their contribution to sustainable development. Chapter 9 : Population Distribution, Urbanization and Internal Migration A. Population distribution and sustainable development Actions 9.4. In order to achieve a balanced spatial distribution of production employment and population, countries should adopt sustainable regional development strategies and strategies for the encouragement of urban consolidation, the growth of small or medium-sized urban centres and the sustainable development of rural areas, including the adoption of labour- intensive projects, training for non-farming jobs for youth and effective transport and communication systems. To create an enabling context for local development, including the provision of services, Governments should consider decentralizing their administrative systems. This also involves giving responsibility for expenditure and the right to raise revenue to regional, district and local authorities. While vast improvements to the urban infrastructure and environmental strategies are essential in many developing countries to provide a healthy environment for urban residents, similar activities should also be pursued in rural areas. 9.10. Countries should increase information and training on conservation practices and foster the creation of sustainable off-farm rural employment opportunities in order to limit the further expansion of human settlements to areas with fragile ecosystems. 9.15. In order to improve the plight of the urban poor, many of whom work in the informal sector of the economy, Governments are urged to promote the integration of migrants from rural areas into urban areas and to develop and improve their income-earning capability by facilitating their access to employment, credit, production, marketing opportunities, basic education, health services, vocational training and transportation, with special attention to the situation of women workers and women heads of households. Child-care centres and special protection and rehabilitation programmes for street children should be established. 9.22. Measures should be taken to ensure that internally displaced persons receive basic education, employment opportunities, vocational training and basic health-care services, including reproductive health services and family planning. Chapter 11 : Population, Development and Education A. Education, population and sustainable development 11.4. The education and training of young people should prepare them for career development and professional life in order to cope with today's complex world. It is on the content of the educational curricula and the nature of the training received that the prospects of gainful employment opportunities depend. Inadequacies in and discrepancies between the educational system and the production system can lead to unemployment and underemployment, a devaluing of qualifications and, in some cases, the exodus of qualified people from rural to urban areas and to "brain drain". It is therefore essential to promote harmonious development of educational systems and economic and social systems conducive to sustainable development. Chapter 13: National Action 13.9. Countries should: (a) Formulate and implement human resource development programmes in a manner that explicitly addresses the needs of population and development strategies, policies, plans and programmes, giving special consideration to the basic education, training and employment of women at all levels, especially at decision-making and managerial levels, and to the incorporation of user and gender perspectives throughout the training programmes; 13.19. Additional resources will be needed for action programmes to accelerate development programmes; generate employment; address environmental concerns, including unsustainable patterns of production and consumption; provide social services; achieve balanced distributions of population; and address poverty eradication through sustained economic growth in the context of sustainable development. Important relevant programmes include those addressed in Agenda 21. Habitat II Conference Programme of Action of the World Summit for Social Development Declaration on Human Settlements (Istanbul) 4. To improve the quality of life within human settlements, we must combat the deterioration of conditions that in most cases, particularly in developing countries, have reached crisis proportions. To this end, we must address comprehensively, inter alia, unsustainable consumption and production patterns, particularly in industrialized countries; unsustainable population changes, including changes in structure and distribution, giving priority consideration to the tendency towards excessive population concentration; homelessness; increasing poverty; unemployment; social exclusion; family instability; inadequate resources; lack of basic infrastructure and services; lack of adequate planning; growing insecurity and violence; environmental degradation; and increased vulnerability to disasters. 6. Rural and urban development are interdependent. In addition to improving the urban habitat, we must also work to extend adequate infrastructure, public services and employment opportunities to rural areas in order to enhance their attractiveness, develop an integrated network of settlements and minimize rural-to-urban migration. Small- and medium-sized towns need special focus. Habitat II Conference Preamble 8. To overcome current problems and to ensure future progress in the improvement of economic, social and environmental conditions in human settlements, we must begin with a recognition of the challenges facing cities and towns. According to current projections, by the turn of the century, more than three billion people - one half of the world's population - will live and work in urban areas. The most serious problems confronting cities and towns and their inhabitants include inadequate financial resources, lack of employment opportunities, spreading homelessness and expansion of squatter settlements, increased poverty and a widening gap between rich and poor, growing insecurity and rising crime rates, inadequate and deteriorating building stock, services and infrastructure, lack of health and educational facilities, improper land use, insecure land tenure, rising traffic congestion, increasing pollution, lack of green spaces, inadequate water supply and sanitation, uncoordinated urban development and an increasing vulnerability to disaster. All of these have seriously challenged the capacities of Governments, particularly those of developing countries, at all levels to realize economic development, social development and environmental protection, which are interdependent and mutually reinforcing components of sustainable development - the framework for our efforts to achieve a higher quality of life for all people. Rapid rates of international and internal migration, as well as population growth in cities and towns, and unsustainable patterns of production and consumption raise these problems in especially acute forms. In these cities and towns, large sections of the world's urban population live in inadequate conditions and are confronted with serious problems, including environmental problems, that are exacerbated by inadequate planning and managerial capacities, lack of investment and technology, and insufficient mobilization and inappropriate allocation of financial resources, as well as by a lack of social and economic opportunities. In the case of international migration, migrants have needs for housing and basic services, education, employment and social integration without a loss of cultural identity, and they are to be given adequate protection and attention within host countries. 9. In the process of globalization and growing interdependence, rural settlements represent a great challenge and opportunity for renewed developmental initiatives at all levels and in all fields. Many rural settlements, however, are facing a lack or an inadequacy of economic opportunities, especially employment, and of infrastructure and services, particularly those related to water, sanitation, health, education, communication, transportation and energy. Appropriate efforts and technologies for rural development can help to reduce, inter alia, imbalances, unsustainable practices, poverty, isolation, environmental pollution and insecure land tenure. Such efforts can contribute to improving the linkage of rural settlements with the mainstream of economic, social and cultural life, to assuring sustainable communities and safe environments, and to reducing pressures on urban growth. 10. Cities, towns and rural settlements are linked through the movements of goods, resources and people. Urban-rural linkages are of crucial importance for the sustainability of human settlements. As rural population growth has outpaced the generation of employment and economic opportunities, rural-to-urban migration has steadily increased, particularly in developing countries, which has put enormous pressure on urban infrastructure and services already under serious stress. It is urgent to eradicate rural poverty and to improve the quality of living conditions, as well as to create employment and educational opportunities in rural settlements, regional centres and secondary cities. Full advantage must be taken of the complementary contributions and linkages of rural and urban areas by balancing their different economic, social and environmental requirements. 21. The Habitat Agenda is a global call to action at all levels. It offers, within a framework of goals and principles and commitments, a positive vision of sustainable human settlements - where all have adequate shelter, a healthy and safe environment, basic services, and productive and freely chosen employment. The Habitat Agenda will guide all efforts to turn this vision into reality. 3.17. Investment in human resource development, in accordance with national policy, must be given priority in population and development strategies and budgets, at all levels, with programmes specifically directed at increased access to information, education, skill development, employment opportunities, both formal and informal, and high-quality general and reproductive health services, including family planning and sexual health care, through the promotion of sustained economic growth within the context of sustainable development in developing countries and countries with economies in transition. Actions 3.29. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the international community and regional and subregional organizations, should formulate and implement population policies and programmes to support the objectives and actions agreed upon in Agenda 21, other Conference outcomes and other international environmental agreements, taking into account the common but differentiated responsibilities reflected in those agreements. Consistent with the framework and priorities set forth in Agenda 21, the following actions, inter alia, are recommended to help achieve population and environment integration: (b) Take measures aimed at the eradication of poverty, with special attention to income-generation and employment strategies directed at the rural poor and those living within or on the edge of fragile ecosystems; Introduction 2. Actions are recommended to create, in a framework of sustained economic growth and sustainable development, a national and international environment favourable to social development, to eradicate poverty, to enhance productive employment and reduce unemployment, and to foster social integration. All the recommended actions are linked, either in the requirements for their design, including the participation of all concerned, or in their consequences for the various facets of the human condition. Policies to eradicate poverty, reduce disparities and combat social exclusion require the creation of employment opportunities, and would be incomplete and ineffective without measures to eliminate discrimination and promote participation and harmonious social relationships among groups and nations. Enhancing positive interaction between environmental, economic and social policies is also essential for success in the longer term. The well-being of people also requires the exercise of all human rights and fundamental freedoms, access to the provision of good education, health care and other basic public services, and the development of harmonious relations within communities. Social integration, or the capacity of people to live together with full respect for the dignity of each individual, the common good, pluralism and diversity, non-violence and solidarity, as well as their ability to participate in social, cultural, economic and political life, encompasses all aspects of social development and all policies. It requires the protection of the weak, as well as the right to differ, to create and to innovate. It calls for a sound economic environment, as well as for cultures based on freedom and responsibility. It also calls for the full involvement of both the State and civil society. 3. Many of the issues mentioned in the present Programme of Action have been addressed in greater detail by previous world conferences concerned with questions closely related to the different aspects of social development. The Programme of Action was elaborated against the background of, and taking into account the commitments, principles and recommendations of, these other conferences, and is also based on the experience of many countries in promoting social objectives in the context of their particular conditions. The special importance of the Programme of Action lies in its integrated approach and its attempt to combine many different actions for poverty eradication, employment creation and social integration in coherent national and international strategies for social development. The implementation of the recommendations contained in the Programme of Action is the sovereign right of each country, consistent with national laws and development priorities, with full respect for the various religious and ethical values and cultural backgrounds of its people, and in conformity with all human rights and fundamental freedoms. Each country will also take action in accordance with its evolving capacities. The outcomes of relevant international conferences should also be duly taken into account in the implementation of the present Programme of Action. IV Global Plan of Action Chapter II - Goals and Principles 28. The eradication of poverty is essential for sustainable human settlements. The principle of poverty eradication is based on the framework adopted by the World Summit for Social Development and on the relevant outcomes of other major United Nations conferences, including the objective of meeting the basic needs of all people, especially those living in poverty and disadvantaged and vulnerable groups, particularly in the developing countries where poverty is acute, as well as the objective of enabling all women and men to attain secure and sustainable livelihoods through freely chosen and productive employment and work. 29. Sustainable development is essential for human settlements development, and gives full consideration to the needs and necessities of achieving economic growth, social development and environmental protection. Special consideration should be given to the specific situation and needs of developing countries and, as appropriate, of countries with economies in transition. Human settlements shall be planned, developed and improved in a manner that takes full account of sustainable development principles and all their components, as set out in Agenda 21 and related outcomes of the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development. Sustainable human settlements development ensures economic development, employment opportunities and social progress, in harmony with the environment. It incorporates, together with the principles of the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, which are equally important, and other outcomes of the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, the principles of the precautionary approach, pollution prevention, respect for the carrying capacity of ecosystems, and preservation of opportunities for future generations. Production, consumption and transport should be managed in ways that protect and conserve the stock of resources while drawing upon them. Science and technology have a crucial role in shaping sustainable human settlements and sustaining the ecosystems they depend upon. Sustainability of human settlements entails their balanced geographical distribution or other appropriate distribution in keeping with national conditions, promotion of economic and social development, human health and education, and the conservation of biological diversity and the sustainable use of its components, and maintenance of cultural diversity as well as air, water, forest, vegetation and soil qualities at standards sufficient to sustain human life and well-being for future generations. Chapter IV Global Plan of Action Section B. Adequate Shelter for All 67. To integrate shelter policies with macroeconomic, social, demographic, environmental and cultural policies, Governments, as appropriate, should: (b) Constantly monitor the impact of macroeconomic policies on shelter delivery systems, considering their specific linkages and taking into account their possible effects on vulnerable and disadvantaged groups; (c) Strengthen the linkages between shelter policies, employment generation, environmental protection, preservation of cultural heritage, resource mobilization and the maximization of resource efficiency, and strengthen the stimulation of and support for sustainable economic development and social development activities; 69. To adopt and implement a cross-sectoral approach to policy development, Governments at the appropriate levels, including local authorities, should: (a) Coordinate and integr ate shelter and human settlements policies with other related policies, such as population and human resource development policies, environment, cultural, land and infrastructure policies, and urban and rural planning, as well as private and/or public employment initiatives; (h) Promote, in those countries where it may be appropriate, the use of labour-intensive construction and maintenance technologies that generate employment in the construction sector for the underemployed labour force found in most large cities, at the same time promoting the development of skills in the construction sector. Section C. Sustainable human settlements development in an urbanizing world C.3. Social development: eradication of poverty, creation of productive employment and social integration 115. Promoting equitable, socially viable and stable human settlements is inextricably linked to eradicating poverty. The concerns of the International Year for the Eradication of Poverty and the International Decade for the Eradication of Poverty are shared by the international community, which also acknowledges the feminization of poverty. Poverty has various manifestations, including homelessness and inadequate housing. The eradication of poverty requires, inter alia, sound macroeconomic policies aimed at creating employment opportunities, equal and universal access to economic opportunities (and special efforts to facilitate such access for the disadvantaged); education and training that will promote sustainable livelihoods through freely chosen productive employment and work; and basic social services, including health facilities. However, there are no universal solutions that can be fairly applied. People living in poverty must be empowered through freely chosen participation in all aspects of political, economic and social life. Other key elements of a poverty eradication strategy include policies geared to reducing inequalities, increasing opportunities, improving and providing, as appropriate, access to resources, employment and income; promoting rural development and measures to improve economic, social and environmental conditions in rural areas; providing social protection for those who cannot support themselves; recognizing the needs and skills of women; developing human resources; improving infrastructure, including communication facilities, and making it more accessible; and promoting domestic policies for meeting the basic needs of all. Actions 116. To promote equal access to and fair and equitable provision of services in human settlements, Governments at the appropriate level, including local authorities, should: (a) Formulate and implement human settlements development policies that ensure equal access to and maintenance of basic services, including those related to the provision of food security; education; employment and livelihood; basic health care services; safe drinking water and sanitation; adequate shelter; and access to open and green spaces, giving priority to the needs and rights of women and children, who often bear the greatest burden of poverty; 117. To promote social integration, Governments at the appropriate levels, including local authorities, recognizing the importance of volunteer contributions and in close cooperation with non-governmental organizations, community-based organizations, the cooperative sector and public and private foundations, should: (a) Prohibit discriminatory, exclusionary practices related to shelter, employment and access to social and cultural facilities; 118. Urban and rural poverty and unemployment represent severe constraints for human settlements development. In order to combat poverty, Governments at the appropriate levels, including local authorities, in partnership with all relevant interested parties, including workers' and employers' organizations, should: (a) Stimulate productive employment opportunities that generate income sufficient to achieve an adequate standard of living for all people, while ensuring equal employment opportunities and wage rates for women and encouraging the location of employment opportunities near and in the home, particularly for women living in poverty and people with disabilities; (f) Ensure that people living in poverty have access to productive resources, including credit, land, education and training, technology, knowledge and information, as well as to public services, and that they have the opportunity to participate in decision-making in a policy and regulatory environment that would enable them to benefit from employment and economic opportunities; (i) Promote and strengthen productive enterprises, including micro-enterprises and small-scale private and cooperative sector enterprises and expand market and other employment and training opportunities for women, men and youth, including people with disabilities and, where appropriate, strengthen the linkages between the informal and formal sectors; 119. In order to promote gender-sensitive planning and management of human settlements, Governments at the appropriate levels, including local authorities, in collaboration with women's groups and other interested parties, should: (f) Foster economic policies that have a positive impact on the employment and income of women workers in both the formal and informal sectors and adopt specific measures to address women's unemployment, in particular their long-term unemployment; (i) Establish programmes that address the absolute poverty found among rural women, focusing on their need for adequate shelter and employment; 120. In order to develop the full potential of young people and prepare them to take a responsible role in the development of human settlements, Governments at the appropriate levels, including local authorities, in partnership with the private sector, non-governmental youth organizations and other non-governmental organizations as well as community-based organizations, should: (e) Utilizing both formal and non-formal educational and training activities and programmes, promote - in partnership with youth - employment programmes and vocational skills development that enhance youth's capacity to participate fully in the social, economic and political processes of human settlements; 123. To prevent, reduce and eliminate violence and crime, Governments at the appropriate levels, including local authorities, in partnership with all interested parties, should: (c) Promote crime prevention through social development by finding ways to help communities deal with underlying factors that undermine community safety and result in crime by addressing such critical problems as poverty, inequality, family stress, unemployment, absence of educational and vocational opportunities, and lack of health care, including mental health services; Section 7. Sustainable transport and communication systems 147. Transport and communication systems are the key to the movement of goods, people, information and ideas, and to access to markets, employment, schools and other facilities and land use, both within cities and between cities, and in rural and other remote areas. The transportation sector is a major consumer of non-renewable energy and of land and is a major contributor to pollution, congestion and accidents. Integrated transport and land-use policy and planning can reduce the ill effects of current transport systems. People living in poverty, women, children, youth, older persons and people with disabilities are particularly disadvantaged by the lack of accessible, affordable, safe and efficient public transport systems. C.9. Improving urban economies 155. Urban economies are integral to the process of economic transformation and development. They are a prerequisite for the creation of a diversified economic base capable of generating employment opportunities. Many new jobs will need to be created in urban areas. Cities currently generate more than half of national economic activities worldwide. If other factors, such as growth of the population of cities and migration to cities, are addressed effectively through, inter alia, urban planning and control of the negative impacts of urbanization, cities could develop the capacity to maintain their productivity, to improve the living conditions of their residents and to manage natural resources in an ecologically sustainable way. Industry, together with trade and services, provides the main impetus to this process. 157. Economic development and the provision of services can be enhanced through improved human settlements activities, such as urban revitalization, construction, upgrading and maintenance of infrastructural facilities, and building and civil works. These activities are also important growth factors in the generation of employment, income and efficiency in other sectors of the economy. In turn, in combination with appropriate environmental protection policies, they result in the sustainable improvement of the living conditions of city residents as well as of the efficiency and productivity of countries. Actions 158. To establish an effective financial base for urban development, Governments at the appropriate levels, including local authorities, in cooperation with trade unions, consumer organizations, business, industry, trade organizations and the financial sector, including the cooperatively organized business sector and non-governmental organizations, as appropriate, should: (a) Formulate and implement financial policies that stimulate a broad range of urban employment opportunities; 159. To provide opportunities for productive employment and private investment, Governments at the appropriate levels, including local authorities, in consultation with workers' and employers' organizations, chambers of commerce, industry, trade and consumer organizations, professional associations and the financial sector, including the cooperative sector, and in the context of comprehensive urban planning, should: (a) Implement sustainable urban development policies that take account of and respond effectively to the needs of locally owned enterprises, and are not detrimental to the natural and human environment; (b) Facilitate access to all levels of education and training; (c) Promote an adequate supply and the environmentally sound allocation of sufficiently serviced land for the needs of the business community, with due regard to the needs of small and medium-sized enterprises; (d) Offer opportunities for urban economic activities by facilitating the access of new and emerging businesses, and small and medium-sized enterprises, including the informal sector, to credit and finance, and by streamlining legal and administrative procedures; (e) Facilitate, where appropriate, the opportunity for urban horticulture; (f) Assist informal sector enterprises to become more productive and progressively integrated into the formal economy; (g) Consider designating select areas for redevelopment within urban centres by providing packages of fiscal and financial incentives along with appropriate regulatory arrangements and the development of partnerships. Section E. International cooperation and coordination 4. Technology transfer and information exchange 205. The use and transfer of environmentally sound technologies that have a profound impact on consumption and production patterns are prerequisites for sustainable human settlements development. Advanced and appropriate technologies and the knowledge-based systems that support their application offer new opportunities for more efficient use of human, financial and material resources, more sustainable industrial practices and new sources of employment. International organizations have an important role to play in disseminating and facilitating access to information on technologies available for transfer. It is understood that the transfer of technology will take into account the need to protect intellectual property rights. 206. The international community should promote and facilitate the transfer of technology and expertise in support of the implementation of plans of action for adequate shelter for all and sustainable human settlements development, inter alia, through: f) Enhancing the identification and dissemination of those new and promising technologies related to human settlements that generate employment, especially those that can lower the cost of infrastructure, make basic services more affordable and minimize detrimental environmental impacts; and identifying specific roles for existing United Nations organizations which would promote those goals. Un Commissions UN Commission on Sustainable Development 1994 The Second Session of the UN Commission on Sustainable Development took place 16-27 May 1994. The recommendations and decisions taken by the Commission were endorsed by the UN General Assembly in December 1994. REPORT OF THE COMMISSION ON SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT ON ITS SECOND SESSION (New York, 16-27 May 1994) CSD 3. Major groups 27. The Commission recognizes that relations in the field of trade and economic endeavour should be conducted with a view to raising standards of living, ensuring full employment and a large and steadily growing volume of real income and effective demand, and expanding the production of and trade in goods and services, while allowing for the optimal use of the world's resources in accordance with the objective of sustainable development, seeking both to protect and preserve the environment and to enhance the means for doing so in a manner consistent with the respective needs and concerns of countries at different levels of economic development. 50. In order to facilitate a better understanding of the interrelationship among consumption patterns, production structures and techniques, economic growth, employment, population dynamics and environmental stress, the Commission calls on Government to: (a) intensify and expand their efforts to collect relevant data at the national and subnational levels and (b) undertake projections and prospective studies so as to better appreciate the consequences of present policy stances and the possible impact of changing those policies. 131. The Commission, therefore: (a) Calls upon Governments to strengthen the networks of small- and medium-sized settlements in rural regions in order to provide attractive settlement opportunities and ease migratory pressure on large metropolises, and recommends that Governments implement programmes of rural development by expanding employment opportunities, providing educational and health facilities, strengthening technical infrastructure, and encouraging rural enterprises and sustainable agriculture, and further calls upon the international community to support those rural development programmes; Commission on Sustainable Development 1995 Report on the Third Session (11-28 April 1995) Chapter 1 Part 4. Changing production and consumption patterns 40. The Commission calls for the promotion of internalization of environmental costs, taking into account the polluter-pays principle, with due regard to the public interest and without distorting international trade and investment. In this regard, it welcomes progress made so far, including in countries with economies in transition and developing countries, in further analysing, adapting and applying various measures and policy instruments designed to internalize environmental externalities. The Commission recognizes that command-and-control measures and social and economic instruments all have their role to play in changing production and consumption patterns. Governments should take into account local and national conditions in designing and implementing such instruments. In the long run, economic and other market-based instruments are likely to be more cost-effective in bringing about sustained changes in producer and consumer behaviour. In this regard, the Commission invites Governments to consider introducing economic measures, including tax and subsidies reform designed to reduce negative environmental impacts and support employment. Part 6. Combating Poverty 76. The Commission stresses the need for a multidimensional and integrated approach towards the goal of poverty eradication in partnership with all actors of civil society. To this end, national strategies should be geared towards the implementation of the Copenhagen Declaration on Social Development and Programme of Action of the World Summit for Social Development, in particular commitment 2 of the Declaration and chapter II of the Programme of Action. National budgets and policies should be oriented, as necessary, to meeting basic needs, reducing inequalities and targeting poverty as a strategic objective. The Commission further stresses that the promotion of full employment and the sustainable use of resources is an essential requirement for combating poverty and promoting social integration. The Commission notes that this is the primary responsibility of States themselves. 77. The Commission urges Governments to reaffirm, promote and strive to ensure the realization of rights contained in relevant international instruments and declarations, such as the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 14/ the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights 15/ and the Declaration on the Right to Development, 16/ including those relating to education, food, shelter, employment, health and information, particularly in order to assist people living in poverty. The Commission also recognizes the need to promote, as regards people living in poverty, access to - and opportunity for - food, water, employment, shelter, education, health, information, transportation and other essential public services. People living in poverty must be enabled so as to have access to productive resources and sustainable livelihoods, including credit, land, education and training, and technology. They should also be empowered to participate in the formulation and implementation of the policies and decisions affecting them. Section D Review of Sectoarl Cluster: Land, Desertification, Forests and Biodiversity Part 2: Integrated Approach to the planning and managemant of land resources 168. An integrated and multidisciplinary approach to the planning, development and management of land resources is a process that methodically identifies human and environmental needs; identifies the potential and options for change and improvement; identifies and evaluates all relevant physical, social, economic and policy factors; and develops a series of actions necessary to permit and facilitate change. The process needs to address an array of cross-sectoral issues, such as the creation of productive employment; the eradication of poverty; responses to pressures on the land caused by poverty; unsustainable consumption and production; population growth; and changing demographic patterns. The clarification and security of land rights, possibly involving land-tenure and ownership reforms, are central to the solution of such problems. A holistic approach to the management of land resources requires the integration of land and water-resource issues as they relate to land use. The mismanagement of land and water often leads to land degradation in the form of erosion, flooding, waterlogging and salinity, and the depletion of groundwater resources. The demands of rural and urban communities for land and its associated water resources will often conflict with each other if they are not properly managed. Commission on Sustainable Development 1996 Chapter I. Matters calling for action by the Economic and Social Council or brought to its attention Decision 4/1. Trade, environment and sustainable development* 4. As to environmental policies and competitiveness, the Commission: (a) Recognizes that the link between environmental policies and competitiveness is a complex one, and notes that there is no available evidence to suggest that environmental policy generally has a significant detrimental impact on competitiveness. Efforts could be made to identify "win-win" opportunities in the design and implementation of environmental policies, which could improve resource efficiency, competitiveness, employment and market access; Commission on Sustainable Development 1998 Report on the Sixth Session (22 December 1997 and 20 April - 1 May 1998) Matter Brought to the attention of the council Decision 6/2. Industry and sustainable development * 1. The Commission on Sustainable Development reaffirmed that in order to achieve sustainable development, Governments, in cooperation with non-State actors, need to undertake greater efforts to integrate economic, social and environmental goals into industrial policy and decision-making. Towards this end, Governments need to expand and intensify cooperation with industry, trade unions and other groups of civil society. The Commission took note of the Chairman's summary of the industry segment of its sixth session. The following recommendations of the Commission are based on the report of the Secretary-General on industry and sustainable development 15/ and the report of the Inter-sessional Ad Hoc Working Group on Industry and Sustainable Development A. Industry and economic development 2. The Commission recognized that industrial policy and responsible entrepreneurship are vital to sustainable development strategies and should encompass a variety of interrelated economic, social and environmental objectives, such as the encouragement of an open, competitive economy, the creation of productive employment and the protection of the environment B. Industry and social development 8. The Commission recognized that there is a mutually reinforcing relationship between social and industrial development, and that industrialization has the potential to promote, directly and indirectly, a variety of social objectives such as employment creation, poverty eradication, gender equality, labour standards, and greater access to education and health care. In this regard, the overriding policy challenge is to promote the positive impacts while limiting or eliminating the negative impacts of industrial activities on social development. The Commission noted that improved access to education and health care has, in general, been associated with the pace of industrialization and recommended that Governments continue to give them priority. 9. The Commission recognized that industry contributes to social development objectives through, inter alia, the creation of productive employment, compliance with labour standards, corporate social initiatives and attention to human resources development and worker welfare. Industry continues to face such challenges, which can be addressed through better dialogue with trade unions and Governments. 10. The Commission acknowledged that, in dealing with the problems of industrialization, social policy has not always been gender neutral. In view of persistent gender disparities in areas such as income, employment, education and health, Governments, industry, trade unions, women's organizations and other organizations of civil society should work together towards the elimination of discrimination against women. C. Industry and environmental protection C. Industry and environmental protection 5. The Commission called upon industry to increase its efforts, as appropriate, in the areas of responsible entrepreneurship and employment of various corporate management tools, including environmental management systems and environmental reporting, to improve its environmental performance. Governments and industry must work together to develop policies to ensure that conformance with standards is not too costly or difficult to achieve for companies in developing countries and for small and medium-sized enterprises. Annex II. Industry and sustainable development 4. Poverty eradication is central to sustainable development strategies, and industry has a key role to play in this respect. Sustainable industrial policy encompasses a variety of interrelated economic, social and environmental objectives, including the encouragement of an open, competitive economy, the creation of productive employment in order to provide sustained increases in household income and social development, and the protection of the natural environment through the efficient use of resources. In order to achieve the objectives of sustainable development, Governments need to integrate economic, social and environmental concerns into their policy and regulatory frameworks, and industry needs to promote sustainable development through sustainable consumption and production and responsible entrepreneurship, in accordance with country-specific conditions. 12. Foreign investment can play a significant and positive role in achieving sustainable development -- for example, through the diffusion of environmentally sound technologies, including environmental management techniques and tools, and in capacity-building and poverty alleviation through employment generation. It can, however, contribute to environmental problems when undertaken with inadequate regard to environmental, economic and social consequences. Consideration should be given to an assessment of the implications for sustainable development of foreign investment. Part BGeneral recommendations 14. Governments at all levels, industry, trade unions and other organizations of civil society, in particular women's organizations, should work together towards the elimination of discrimination against women in employment, education, property ownership and access to credit and to ensure that women have effective equal access to economic opportunities and social participation. Governments should ensure that their social and industrial policies are gender-sensitive. C. Recommendations for Governments 28. Increased efforts are needed by Governments, in cooperation with industry, trade unions and civil society, to ensure universal compliance by industry, including informal enterprises, of core labour standards as contained in the Conventions of the International Labour Organization. Such standards include freedom of association, the right of collective bargaining, prohibition of forced and child labour, and non-discrimination in employment. 31. Since the creation of employment plays a pivotal role in the alleviation of poverty, industrial policies should promote linkages between enterprises in the formal and informal sectors, including transnational corporations. 54. Industrialization is a key element in promoting sustainable development in developing countries, particularly in Africa, and the least developed countries. It plays an important role in the efforts of those countries to eradicate poverty, create productive employment and integrate women into the development process. The business community, especially the small and medium-sized enterprises, have a particularly important role in enhancing industrialization. There is a need for the United Nations Industrial Development Organization, the United Nations Environment Programme and other relevant United Nations bodies to enhance their activities in developing and implementing sustainable industrial development strategies, including taking into account the implementation of the Second Industrial Decade for Africa. E. Recommendations for the international community 55. The international community, the United Nations Industrial Development Organization and other relevant United Nations bodies are encouraged to provide appropriate financial and technical support to enable industries in developing countries to comply with national environmental goals and objectives through strategic environmental policies at the national and subnational levels. 60. Full implementation of the recommendations of the World Summit for Social Development 20/ would effectively address growing international income disparities among and within countries and the risk that some countries and groups might fall deeper into poverty and exclusion. Policies are needed to implement the commitments expressed in the Copenhagen Declaration on Social Development 21/ to, inter alia, expand productive employment, reduce unemployment, enhance social protection and reduce the vulnerability of the poorest groups. The International Labour Organization has a central role in monitoring the implementation of relevant labour standards and in stimulating patterns of economic growth that provide job opportunities. Concerted action by interested countries for the implementation of the 20/20 initiative is making a significant contribution to some developing countries, particularly the least developed. Commisson for Sustainable Development 1999 Report on the Seventh Session, 19-30 April 1999 Annex General considerations 3. Many delegations stated that unsustainable consumption and production patterns include both adverse environmental impacts arising from the excess consumption of natural resources, particularly in the developed countries, and unemployment, poverty and underconsumption of basic goods and services, particularly in developing countries.They felt it would be useful to have a coordinated programme of national and regional studies concerning destructive patterns of consumption and production, notably in the areas of energy use, transport of waste products and use of renewable and non-renewable natural resources, to assess their sustainability. It was also considered important to ensure a sustainable development agenda for energy that would cover all types of energy and address economic, social and environmental aspects. 10. Many delegations stated that Governments should ensure minimum standards of consumption for poor people, with particular attention to nutrition, literacy and education, health care, clean drinking water, sanitation and shelter. Improving opportunities for productive employment, particularly in rural areas of developing countries, could contribute to this objective. It was noted that rural communities in developing countries where access to electricity was prohibitively expensive could be supplied with solar energy, thus improving living standards and environmental conditions. Decision 7/3 Tourism and Sustainable Development 3. The Commission urges Governments (i) To promote a favourable framework for small and medium-sized enterprises, the major engine for job creation in the tourism sector, by reducing administrative burdens, facilitating access to capital and providing training in management and other skills, in recognition of the employment potential of sustainable tourism development; 5(a) To promote sustainable tourism development in order to increase the benefits from the tourism resources for the population in the host communities and maintain the cultural and environmental integrity of the host community; to encourage cooperation of major groups at all levels with a view to facilitating Local Agenda 21 initiatives and promoting linkages within the local economy in order that benefits may be more widely shared; to this end, greater efforts should be undertaken for the employment of the local workforce, and the use of local products and skills; UN Commission on the Status of Women 1. CSW 1996 The Commission on the Status of Women met for its 40th Session 11-22 March 1996. Report on the fortieth session (11-22 March 1996) E. Women and Global Communications Section D. Adapting the legal system (c) Promote legislative measures, incentives and/or measures of encouragement that would enable men and women to take parental leave and receive social security benefits. Such measures should protect working men and women against dismissal and guarantee their right to re-enter employment in an equivalent post; Section E. Adopting and promoting a family support policy and encouraging reconciliation of family and professional life for women and men 14. The State and society at large have a responsibility for child and dependant care. This responsibility is reflected in the adoption of an integrated approach at the local and national levels in order to ensure access to affordable and reliable services for the children and dependants (particularly those who are elderly and disabled) of women and men who are working, undergoing training, studying or seeking employment. This responsibility can also take the form of incentives for parents and employers, of a partnership between local authorities, management and labour, non-governmental organizations and the private sector, and of the provision of technical assistance and access to vocational training. 15. With a view to complementing the efforts being made in this direction by Governments, international financial institutions should be encouraged to take into account the growing need for financing to establish day-care nurseries, particularly in areas where there is a greater concentration of poverty, in order to facilitate the training of mothers or their entry into paid employment. Section F. Women and the economy 36. As regards work and employment, there should be a more comprehensive approach to methods of measuring and disseminating information on types, extent and distribution of unremunerated work, in keeping with the relevant paragraphs of the Platform for Action, particularly paragraph 165 (g). Traffic in women and girls "Concurring with the conclusions and recommendations made by recent international conferences, including the World Conference on Human Rights in Vienna, the World Summit for Social Development in Copenhagen, the International Conference on Population and Development in Cairo and the Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing, on the human rights of women and girl children, in particular with respect to the violation of those rights by their being forced into sexually or economically oppressive and exploitative situations for the profit of recruiters, traffickers and crime syndicates, as well as into other illegal activities related to trafficking, such as forced domestic labour, false marriages, child marriages, clandestine employment and false adoption, Resolution 40/6. Violence against women migrant workers Noting the large numbers of women from developing countries and from some countries with economies in transition who continue to venture forth to more affluent countries in search of a living for themselves and their families as a consequence of poverty, unemployment and other socio-economic conditions, Recognizing that it is the duty of sending countries to protect and promote the interests of their citizens who seek or receive employment in other countries, to provide them with appropriate training/education and to apprise them of their rights and obligations in the countries of employment, 9. Emphasizes that, in addition to the commitments and recommendations regarding the eradication of poverty outlined in the Programme of Action of the World Summit for Social Development 53/ and in the Platform for Action adopted by the Fourth World Conference on Women, specific measures in the Platform for Action should be undertaken to address the feminization of poverty and to mainstream a gender perspective in all policies and programmes for the eradication of poverty, including, inter alia, measures to: (d) Develop national strategies for promoting employment and self- employment, including entrepreneurial and organizational skills, in order to generate income for women; (e) Adopt policies to ensure that all women have adequate economic and social protection during unemployment, ill health, maternity, child-bearing, widowhood, disability and old age and that women, men and society share responsibilities for child and other dependant care; Chapter II Follow Up Implementation of strategic objectives and action in the critical areas of concern: poverty 62. At the 12th meeting, on 20 March, the representative of Costa Rica (on behalf of the States Members of the United Nations that are members of the Group of 77 and China) introduced and orally revised a draft resolution (E/CN.6/1996/L.10) entitled "Implementation of strategic objectives and action in the critical area of concern: poverty". The draft resolution read as follows: "4. Recommends that in order to attain the goals of eradicating the feminization of poverty as set out in the Platform for Action, the following actions, inter alia, be undertaken: "(e) Development of national strategies for promoting employment and self-employment, including entrepreneurial and organizational skills in order to generate income for women; "(f) Adoption of policies to ensure that all women have adequate economic and social protection during unemployment, ill health, maternity, child-bearing, widowhood, disability and old age; UN Conventions The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women: CEDAW Article 11 1. States Parties shall take all appropriate measures to eliminate discrimination against women in the field of employment in order to ensure, on a basis of equality of men and women, the same rights, in particular: (a) The right to work as an inalienable right of all human beings; (b) The right to the same employment opportunities, including the application of the same criteria for selection in matters of employment; (c) The right to free choice of profession and employment, the right to promotion, job security and all benefits and conditions of service and the right to receive vocational training and retraining, including apprenticeships, advanced vocational training and recurrent training; (d) The right to equal remuneration, including benefits, and to equal treatment in respect of work of equal value, as well as equality of treatment in the evaluation of the quality of work; (e) The right to social security, particularly in cases of retirement, unemployment, sickness, invalidity and old age and other incapacity to work, as well as the right to paid leave; (f) The right to protection of health and to safety in working conditions, including the safeguarding of the function of reproduction. 2. In order to prevent discrimination against women on the grounds of marriage or maternity and to ensure their effective right to work, States Parties shall take appropriate measures: (a) To prohibit, subject to the imposition of sanctions, dismissal on the grounds of pregnancy or of maternity leave and discrimination in dismissals on the basis of marital status; (b) To introduce maternity leave with pay or with comparable social benefits without loss of former employment, seniority or social allowances; (c) To encourage the provision of the necessary supporting social services to enable parents to combine family obligations with work responsibilities and participation in public life, in particular through promoting the establishment and development of a network of child-care facilities; (d) To provide special protection to women during pregnancy in types of work proved to be harmful to them. 3. Protective legislation relating to matters covered in this article shall be reviewed periodically in the light of scientific and technological knowledge and shall be revised, repealed or extended as necessary International Bill of Human Rights Universal Declaration of Human Rights Article 23 (1) Everyone has the right to work, to free choice of employment, to just and favourable conditions of work and to protection against unemployment. (2) Everyone, without any discrimination, has the right to equal pay for equal work. (3) Everyone who works has the right to just and favourable remuneration ensuring for himself and his family an existence worthy of human dignity, and supplemented, if necessary, by other means of social protection. (4) Everyone has the right to form and to join trade unions for the protection of his interests. Article 25 (1) Everyone has the right to a standard of living adequate for the health and well-being of himself and of his family, including food, clothing, housing and medical care and necessary social services, and the right to security in the event of unemployment, sickness, disability, widowhood, old age or other lack of livelihood in circumstances beyond his control. (2) Motherhood and childhood are entitled to special care and assistance. All children, whether born in or out of wedlock, shall enjoy the same social protection. The International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights PART III Preamble PART III Article 6 1. The States Parties to the present Covenant recognize the right to work, which includes the right of everyone to the opportunity to gain his living by work which he freely chooses or accepts, and will take appropriate steps to safeguard this right. 2. The steps to be taken by a State Party to the present Covenant to achieve the full realization of this right shall include technical and vocational guidance and training programmes, policies and techniques to achieve steady economic, social and cultural development and full and productive employment under conditions safeguarding fundamental political and economic freedoms to the individual. Article 7 The States Parties to the present Covenant recognize the right of everyone to the enjoyment of just and favourable conditions of work which ensure, in particular: (c) Equal opportunity for everyone to be promoted in his employment to an appropriate higher level, subject to no considerations other than those of seniority and competence; Article 10 The States Parties to the present Covenant recognize that: 3. Special measures of protection and assistance should be taken on behalf of all children and young persons without any discrimination for reasons of parentage or other conditions. Children and young persons should be protected from economic and social exploitation. Their employment in work harmful to their morals or health or dangerous to life or likely to hamper their normal development should be punishable by law. States should also set age limits below which the paid employment of child labour should be prohibited and punishable by law.